UC-NRLF 


SB    2TD    TTM 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF. CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 

MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


MOSAICS   FROM    INDIA 


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Mosaics  From  India 


TALKS     ABOUT    INDIA,     ITS     PEOPLES, 
RELIGIONS   AND    CUSTOMS 


BY 


MARGARET  BOEHME  DENNING 

MUZAFFARPUR,  INDIA 


YOUNG  PEOPLE'S  MISSIONARY  MOVEMENT 
NEW  YORK 


COPYRIGHT,    ig02, 
BY     FLEMING     H. 

REVELL 


COMPANY 


J>33 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introduction   1 1 

I.  Bombay 13 

II.  Government  of  India 26 

III.  Missions  in  India 43 

IV.  City  of  the  Peshwas    63 

V.  Child-widows  and  Their  Champion  ....  73 

VI.  Stories  of  Little  Girls 92 

VII.  Up-country,  or  "Mofussil" 108 

VIII.  Behind  the  Purdah 129 

IX.  The  Iron  Bracelet 146 

X.  Low-caste  Women    159 

XL  Famine 167 

XII.  Weddings    180 

XIII.  The  Hill  Country   195 

XIV.  Oriental  Palaces  and  Tombs 208 

XV.  About  Caste  222 

XVI.  Peculiarities  of  Caste 243 

XVII.  Education    259 

XVIII.  Gods  and  Religions  of  the  Land ......  273 

XIX,  Pilgrimages  and  Holy  Places    283 


M309557 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

i.  View  of  "Agra  City" Frontispiece 

2.  A  Group  of  Christians      .        .        .        .                .  45 

3.  A  Bible  Cart  in  India 55 

4.  Hardwicke  Christian  Boys'  School,  Narsinghpur    .  57 

5.  Class  of  Boys  Studying  English  in  Hardwicke  Chris- 

tian Boys'  School 62 

6.  American  Missionary  in  Marathi  Costume       .        .  65 

7.  Group  of  High-caste  Youths,  Poona,  India          .        .  65 

8.  Portrait  of  Ramabai 85 

9.  Group  of  Child  Widows        .        .        .        .        »        .85 

10.  Mission  Bungalow,  with  Thatched  Roof,  Narsinghpur, 

India no 

11.  Indian  Buffaloes  Bathing 113 

12.  A  Hindu  Street  Scene 113 

13.  Marble  Rocks  of  Narbudda  River,  near  Jabalpur  122 

14.  A  Group  of  Common  People 159 

15.  A  Group  of  Sweepers 164 

16.  A  Famine  Subject 167 

17.  Group  of    Famine  Children  and  Nine  Women  Who 

Cared  for  Them  in  the  Government  Poor  House  174 

18.  Rescued  Famine  Children  at  Dinner    ....  179 

19.  Group  of  Todas  and  Their  Dwelling        .        .        .  202 

20.  Sacrificing  a  Buffalo  at  a  Toda  Funeral       .        .        .  204 

21.  The  Exquisite  Marble  ^Fret-work  Screen   inside  the 

Taj  Mahal,  Agra 208 

22.  The  Methodist  Theological  Seminary,  Barielly    .        .  213 

23.  The  Jessamine  Bower  in  the  Palace  at  Agra  .        .  216 

24.  The  Fort  Agra 219 

25.  Christian  Girls'  School,  Jubbulpore  .        .     '  .        .  265 

26.  Stone  Hog  at  Barmon  on  the  Narbudda  River    .        .  284 

27.  Figure  of  Sacred   Bull  at  the  Temple  of  Parwati, 

Poona 284 

28.  Burning  the  Dead 290 


INTRODUCTION 

Wander  with  me  through  Hindustan — the  land  of 
varied  peoples,  tongues  and  climes,  of  romance  and  of 
poetry,  and  yet  the  land  of  sorrow,  poverty  and  false 
gods. 

We  shall  wish  to  see  old  temples,  wherein,  since 
long  ago,  these  peoples  have  searched  after  God,  drift- 
ing into  strange,  idolatrous  worship,  not  finding  the 
Living  One.  Here  and  there  we  shall  listen  to  talks 
by  the  wayside,  in  out-caste  huts  or  in  curtained 
zenanas.  We  shall  go  out  into  the  beautiful  country 
and,  standing  beside  Mother  Ganges,  see  the  trees  so 
rich  in  blossom,  delight  our  eyes  with  the  beauty  of 
old  palaces  and  visit  tombs  and  mosques.  Yet,  most 
of  all,  we  shall  hope  to  get  near  the  people  at  their 
vocations,  in  their  ceremonies  and  in  their  worship — 
near  to  the  heart  of  India.  And,  as  we  see  and  know 
these  people  better,  knowledge  will  inspire  pity,  then 
sympathy,  sometimes  admiration,  and  all  will  give 
place  to  love.  They  will  be  no  longer  barbarians,  but 
simply  strayed  brothers  of  our  common  family.  And, 
having  learned  to  love  them,  we  must  long  to  bring 
them  home  to  the  family  reunion,  for  "Love  never 
failcth." 

Some  chapters  of  this  book  have  appeared  in  "The 
Chautauquan,"  "The  Missionary  Review  of  the 
World"  and  other  publications,  and  I  am  greatly  in- 
debted to  their  publishers  for  permission  to  reprint. 
Monier  Williams'  book  on  "Brahminism"  has  been 
consulted  on  points  regarding  caste  and  customs. 

ii 


i4  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

turns  aside  to  enjoy  the  cool  of  the  evening  in  little 
parks  or  along  the  sea-beach. 

All  this  brightness,  movement  and  beauty,  belong 
to  European  Bombay,  although  many  of  the  wealthy 
and  high-caste  people  share  in  it  also.  The  native  city 
is  very  different.  Here  are  the  narrow,  badly  drained 
streets,  the  crowded  tenements,  where  the  plague  finds 
such  congenial  quarters,  and  the  numberless  small 
shops  which  delight  the  foreigner  and  reward  the 
curio-seeking  tourist.  In  this  part  of  Bombay  the 
habits  and  customs  of  the  people  may  be  studied,  as 
life  is  studied  in  crowded  Naples.  However,  here  in 
the  oriental  city  one  notes  a  remarkable  absence  of  the 
feminine  element  of  the  city's  life.  The  few  women 
seen  belong  to  the  lower  classes,  with  the  exception 
of  the  favored  high-born  Marathi  woman,  who  need  not 
go  veiled,  or  the  fair  Parsee  lady,  who  rivals  her 
Western  sister  in  freedom  as  well  as  in  beauty. 

All  sorts  of  occupations  are  carried  on  out-of- 
doors — not  only  the  trades  and  handicrafts,  but  house- 
hold duties  as  well.  Here  are  fruits  or  grain  being 
laid  out  in  the  sun  to  dry,  a  baby  enjoying  its  bath  on 
a  door-step,  rice  in  process  of  cleaning,  a  barber  busy 
on  the  curbstone,  a  woman  scouring  brass  cooking- 
pots — and  all  in  the  teeming  streets  of  Bombay.  The 
same  unconcern  regarding  outward  appearances  will 
be  found  all  over  India.  As  the  coolies  work  on  the 
roads,  pounding  in  sandstone  and  concrete,  they  sing 
in  concert,  or,  in  responsive  couplets,  keep  time  with 
their  doolmuts,  or  pounders.  Processions  of  all  sorts 
pass   through   the   streets,    singing    wedding   ditties, 


BOMBAY  15 

funeral  dirges  or  religious  chants.  Wedding  dinners 
are  served  on  the  road  in  front  of  the  bride's  or  bride- 
groom's house,  and  the  guests  seem  to  enjoy  the  feast 
all  the  more  for  being  the  cynosures  of  hungry  eyes. 
Almost  hide-bound  by  caste-rules  and  observances,  the 
people  of  India  are  nevertheless  free  as  air  from  the 
restrictions  of  our  so-called  proprieties. 

This  out-door  life  is,  in  certain  phases,  very  at- 
tractive and  delightful,  suited  to  the  people  and  to  the 
climate  and  fascinating  to  the  foreigner  from  colder 
lands;  but  it  is  also  pathetic  in  many  ways.  Its  sad- 
dest feature  is  the  dearth  of  real  family-life,  the  ab- 
sence of  the  home.  Men  may  sit  in  groups  and  smoke 
or  dally  over  their  sherbet,  but  no  family  group  is  ever 
visible,  except  among  the  Parsees  or  resident  foreign- 
ers. Even  the  Marathi  woman,  though  not  hid  away 
as  are  most  high-caste  women,  is  never  seen  with  her 
husband  and  sons.  Traveling  about  India  one  misses 
more  and  more  the  shut-in  millions — the  lonely 
women  for  whom  the  marvelous  Eastern  moonlight 
means  but  a  few  rays  in  a  dingy,  walled  back-yard, 
and  for  whom  the  flowers  and  groves  bloom  and  blos- 
som in  vain. 

The  great  diversity  of  vehicles  and  animals  in  Bom- 
bay is  very  interesting.  Almost  all  sorts  of  English 
carriages  are  used.  Then  there  is  the  huge  bullock- 
coach,  holding  eight  or  ten,  drawn  by  the  fine,  humped 
Indian  ox,  and  the  queer  little  top-heavy  ekka,  meant 
for  one  only,  as  its  name  signifies,  but  often  fairly 
bulging  with  its  human  freight.  Among  the  fine 
English    turnouts,    the    country    carts,    the    bullock- 


16  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

coaches  and  the  horsecars,  may  be  seen  also  the  un- 
gainly black  buffaloes,  dragging  heavy  drays  slowly 
along,  and  all  combining  to  make  a  medley  of  traffic 
unknown  in  any  but  an  Indian  city.  The  horses  be- 
longing to  the  streetcars  usually  wear  white  sun-hats 
tied  down  under  their  chins  in  a  most  comical,  grand- 
motherly style. 

Besides  these  sights  there  are  the  Chinese  shops, 
the  queer  little  places  where  one  can  buy  curios;  the 
wonderful  Crawford  Market  with  its  unrivaled  fruit, 
the  mango,  and  an  almost  endless  variety  of  other 
fruits.  But  to  one  who  loves  his  race,  the  most  inter- 
esting, yet  most  pathetic,  of  all  this  city's  varied 
spectacles  is  her  teeming  millions.  The  newcomer  is 
always  shocked  by  the  prevalent  semi  and  total  naked- 
ness seen  here.  Even  those  not  limited  by  poverty  to 
a  narrow  loin-cloth,  by  preference  often  wear  nothing 
else.  This  custom,  universal  among  the  lower 
classes,  extends  to  the  higher  orders  when  sitting  in 
the  doorways  of  their  homes  or  in  their  shops. 

Altogether,  Bombay  belongs  to  a  strange  new 
world,  yet  an  old,  old,  slowly  changing  world — the 
Orient,  which  fascinates  while  it  repels. 

THE  SOROSIS  CLUB  AT  BOMBAY. 

Upon  invitation  of  Dr.  Emma  Ryder,  the  President 
of  the  Sorosis  Club  of  Bombay,  I  drove  one  afternoon 
down  the  Esplanade  to  the  Girls'  School,  where  an 
"at  home"  of  the  club  was  given  in  honor  of  the 
Governor's  wife. 


BOMBAY  17 

At  the  gate  of  the  compound,  or  yard,  my  husband 
left  me  and  I  ascended  the  stairs  alone,  for  gentlemen 
were  not  permitted  on  the  second  landing  even,  as 
many  ladies  had  accepted  the  invitation  of  Dr.  Ryder 
on  condition  and  promise  that  gentlemen  were  not  to 
be  present. 

It  was  a  brilliant  scene.  The  room  was  large  and 
airy,  with  many  doors  and  windows  opening  upon 
verandas  on  either  side.  At  one  end  of  the  room, 
partly  hidden  by  curtains  and  a  screen,  was  a  table 
spread  with  dainties  new  and  rare  to  Western  eyes. 
Fine  palms  in  huge  pots  adorned  the  archways,  and 
tasteful  articles  of  Indian  bric-a-brac  were  used  in 
profusion. 

The  company  could  well  be  called  "exclusive,"  for 
we  were  admitted  behind  the  Mohammedan  purdahs 
and  enjoyed  associations  which  a  few  years  ago  would 
have  been  denied  to  all.  There  were  present  repre- 
sentatives of  at  least  six  nationalities  and  of  almost  as 
many  religions.  A  few  of  the  company  were  Amer- 
ican and  English  ladies,  some  Mohammedan  and 
Hindu,  but  the  larger  number  were  Parsees.  This 
was  owing  in  part  to  the  proximity  of  the  Parsee  Girls' 
School  and  also  to  the  fact  that  some  of  the  young 
ladies  from  the  school  were  to  take  part  in  the 
program. 

A  more  richly  dressed  assembly  it  would  be  difficult 
to  find ;  yet  not  a  single  specimen  of  the  so-called  "full- 
dress"  costume  was  there.  The  Hindu  women  were 
attired  in  a  tasteful  and  costly  manner,  but  their  gar- 
ments were  of  sober  hues.     Their  head-ornaments  of 


18  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

gold  were  massive  and  beautiful,  the  hair  being  drawn 
smoothly  back  into  a  knot  and  fastened  by  these  gold 
medallions.  The  Mohammedans  wore  rich  costumes  and 
fine  ornaments  and  were  distinguished  by  embroidered 
turbans;  but  the  brilliancy  and  light  of  the  company 
came  from  the  soft  and  shimmering  silks  of  the  Parsee 
ladies — white,  rich  red,  peach,  pink,  blue,  pale  yellows 
and  lovely  tints  of  light  green  blending  and  mingling 
in  kaleidoscopic  fashion.  These  graceful  garments 
were  trimmed  with  gold  and  silver  braid,  rich  lace  and 
bands  of  embroidered  ribbon.  The  necklaces,  brace- 
lets, and,  in  the  case  of  the  Hindus,  the  nose-jewels 
and  anklets,  made  a  soft,  tinkling  noise  as  their  owners 
moved  about.  It  was  an  Arabian  Nights  scene. 
Yet  this  very  tinkling  of  the  wristlets  and  anklets 
sounded  to  me  like  the  noise  of  chains,  for,  as  I  looked 
into  the  beautiful  faces,  I  thought  that  the  shadows  of 
oppression  were  there. 

But  what  is  the  Sorosis  and  what  are  its  objects? 
It  is,  in  brief,  the  daughter  of  the  New  York  Sorosis, 
a  club  which  was  organized  for  purely  literary  pur- 
poses and  aimed  at  a  confederation  of  many  similar 
clubs. 

When  Dr.  Ryder  arrived  in  India  she  was  wonder- 
fully impressed  with  the  narrowness  of  the  lives  lived 
by  even  the  most  favored  of  India's  women.  Family 
weddings,  births  and  deaths — and  for  the  rest  the 
merest  trifles — made  up  the  sum  total  of  their  exper- 
ience. History,  deeds  of  heroism  and  the  vivid  life  of 
to-day  seemed  scarcely  to  reach  them  at  all.  Mrs. 
Ryder  felt  it  her  plain  duty  to  open  the  world  in  some 


BOMBAY  19 

way  to  these  women.  The  first  step  in  this  direction 
was  the  insertion  of  a  notice  in  the  Bombay  papers  to 
the  effect  that,  on  a  certain  Saturday  afternoon,  she 
would  be  glad  to  receive  all  women  who  would  come, 
with  a  view  to  forming  a  woman's  club. 

Great  apprehension  was  felt  by  Mrs.  Ryder's 
friends  as  to  the  outcome  of  this  experiment.  They 
were  sure  it  would  either  end  in  failure  or  in  the 
gathering  together  of  a  very  doubtful  company.  How- 
ever, the  day  arrived,  and  with  it  forty  women  of 
various  creeds  and  nationalities.  A  club  was  formed 
and  christened  "Sorosis." 

A  reading-room  forms  the  center  of  attraction  for 
the  club.  To  this  women  may  come  who  never  before 
ventured  anywhere  alone.  To  many  it  is  the  only 
thing  of  interest  outside  of  their  homes.  Here  are 
choice  books  and  magazines  and  here  these  women 
come  to  discuss  all  sorts  of  topics,  or  to  fraternize  in 
a  manner  previously  unheard  of  in  this  land  of  caste 
and  social  barriers. 

Here  the  Hindu  meets  the  Parsee  and  both  meet 
the  Christian,  whether  European,  Eurasian,  or  native. 
Strangest  of  all,  the  seclusive,  shrouded  Mussulmani 
steals  in,  and,  unveiling,  takes  her  share  in  the  new 
comradeship. 

There  are  regular  fortnightly  meetings  and  an  oc- 
casional "at  home,"  or  tea.  At  every  regular  meeting 
a  twenty-minute  lecture  is  given  on  the  life  of  some 
worthily  distinguished  woman.  Elizabeth  Fry,  Miss 
Carpenter,  Frances  Willard  and  others  have,  in  this 
way,  been  infusing  new  aspirations  and  thoughts  into 


20  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

the  minds  and  hearts  of  these  Eastern  sisters.  Essays 
are  read  and  music  is  rendered  in  Persian,  English, 
Marathi  and  Arabic.  As  will  be  seen,  some  of  these 
women  know  something  of  certain  branches  of  educa- 
tion, but  their  lives  are  shut  in  and  narrow.  The  club 
gives  them  some  opportunity  to  exercise  their  mental 
muscle  and  to  belong,  in  a  measure,  to  the  age  in  which 
they  live. 

There  is  no  missionary  work  connected  with  this 
movement ;  but,  although  we  may  depreciate  the  pres- 
ence of  an  idol  on  the  piano,  even  though  it  be  merely 
for  ornament,  and  may  wish  there  were  a  more  distinct- 
ly Christian  atmosphere  in  these  gatherings,  still  a 
good  work  is  being  done  in  the  opening  of  hitherto 
closed  doors  and  in  the  burning  away  of  caste-barriers 
in  the  fires  of  social  life  and  kindred  interests. 

Over  the  door  of  the  room  is  the  motto  sent  to  Dr. 
Ryder  by  the  President  of  the  New  York  Sorosis: 
"Tell  them  the  world  was  made  for  women  also." 
Strange  new  doctrine  for  India !  Yet  in  the  gather- 
ings in  the  mission  schools  for  girls  all  over  the  em- 
pire, in  the  passage  of  the  "Bill  of  Consent"  and  in 
Pandita  Ramabai's  School  for  Widows  in  Poona — in 
all  these  we  see  the  dawn  of  hope  for  India's  woman- 
hood. 

Some  day  meetings  such  as  I  have  described  will 
not  be  so  rare.  Pandita's  school  will  not  be  the  "lone 
star"  of  hope  for  twenty-one  million  widows.  Some 
day  this  beautiful  Eastern  world  will  indeed  be  made 
for  women  also,  for  some  day  our  God  will  rule  in  this 
land  of  the  palm  and  citron,  and  King  Emmanuel  will 


BOMBAY  21 

be  the  Lord.  Then  infants  will  not  be  married,  nor 
child-widows  cry  by  reason  of  their  bitter  bondage. 
Then  will  the  Sun  of  Righteousness  arise  with  healing 
in  His  wings,  and  there  shall  be  "no  more  curse"  upon 
the  women  and  the  homes  of  India. 

"towers  of  silence." 

One  of  the  most  weirdly  interesting  scenes  in  Bom- 
bay is  the  place  where  the  Parsees  dispose  of  their 
dead,  known  as  the  "Towers  of  Silence."  One  day,  in 
company  with  an  American  lady,  we  drove  over  beau- 
tiful Malabar  Hill  to  this  strange  spot.  As  it  stands 
on  an  eminence  overlooking  the  sea,  protected  on  the 
landward  side  by  a  high  stone  wall,  we  could  see  noth- 
ing of  the  towers  as  we  approached.  We  alighted  at 
the  gate  and  were  admitted  by  the  dignified  gate- 
keeper. Another  Parsee  showed  us  over  the  grounds, 
which  are  carefully  laid  out  in  gravel  walks  and  dot- 
ted with  various  kinds  of  palms,  the  variegated  cro- 
tons,  often  called  "the  flowers  of  India,"  and  with 
many  flowering  trees.  From  these  trees  and  plants 
each  visitor  received  a  bouquet  on  leaving. 

Here  and  there  are  several  temples  dedicated  to 
fire-worship,  the  religion  of  the  Parsees.  Five  priests 
keep  the  fire  burning  continuously  in  these  temples, 
and,  since  the  first  Persians  landed  in  Bombay,  over 
two  hundred  years  ago,  this  fire  has  never  been  allowed 
to  go  out.  The  trees,  parterres  of  flowers,  the  neat 
walks  and  even  the  fire-temples  were  pleasant  to  the 
eye — but  these  were  not  what  we  had  come  to  see. 


22  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

All  these  are  merely  the  setting  for  the  five  round 
towers  of  white  masonry,  scattered  here  and  there 
among  the  shrubbery.  These  are  the  "Towers  of 
Silence,"  where  the  Parsees  expose  their  dead  to  be 
devoured  by  vultures. 

Those  grewsome  objects  perched  in  an  unbroken 
row  upon  the  edges  of  every  parapet  are  motionless 
birds  awaiting  their  ghoulish  feast.  One  of  these  solid 
white  towers,  with  its  fringe  of  black  vultures  standing 
out  in  relief  against  the  sky,  is  a  sickening  sight ;  for 
the  disposal  of  the  dead  by  exposing  their  bodies*  to 
these  loathsome  birds  is  certainly  the  most  revolting 
of  all  the  methods  of  disposing  of  lifeless  clay. 

The  towers  are  open  to  the  sky  above,  but  all  the 
interior  is  hidden  from  sight  by  outer  walls,  rising 
fourteen  feet  above  the  stone  platform  on  which  the 
dead  are  laid.  They  are  perhaps  thirty  feet  high  and 
ninety  feet  in  diameter. 

Although  no  one  has  ever  seen  the  interior  except 
the  builders  and  those  who  carry  the  dead  to  the 
towers,  there  is  a  large  model  about  three  feet-  in 
diameter,  kept  locked  in  a  wooden  box  near  the  gate, 
which  the  guide  will  exhibit  and  explain,  and  by  means 
of  which  a  fair  idea  of  the  whole  structure  may  be  ob- 
tained. This  model,  and  one  exactly  similar,  which 
was  sent  to  the  Paris  Exposition,  are  the  only  ones  ever 
made,  the  old  Parsee  told  us.  We  have  since  been  in- 
formed that  miniature  ones  are  for  sale  in  Bombay. 
However  this  may  be,  we  have  never  been  able  to  se- 
cure one  as  a  curio. 

The  plan  of  a  tower  is  approximately  this:  a  cir- 


BOMBAY  23 

cular  platform,  fourteen  feet  below  the  topmost  level 
of  the  outer  wall,  and,  as  already  described,  open  to 
sun,  wind  and  rain,  receives  the  bodies.  This  platform 
is  divided  into  three  concentric  rings  of  stone  re- 
ceptacles. The  outer  row  is  for  men,  the  middle  for 
women  and  the  inner  for  children.  In  the  center,  oc- 
cupying the  greater  part  of  the  tower,  is  the  well. 

These  receptacles  are  connected  by  gutters,  cut  be- 
tween them,  and  the  rains  wash  away  all  uncleanness 
from  the  bodies,  which  have  been  stripped  of  flesh  by 
the  birds  of  prey.  This  water  passes  into  the  great 
well,  where  it  percolates  through  the  bleaching  bones 
of  thousands  of  Parsees,  and  from  thence  is  carried  off 
through  huge  underground  drains.  There  are  four  of 
these  drains,  and  at  the  entrance  of  every  one  is  a  large 
box  of  charcoal  intended  to  purify  the  water  before  it 
is  discharged  into  the  earth.  There  are,  perhaps, 
methods  of  renewing  this  charcoal  when  it  becomes 
clogged  with  impurities.  On  a  level  with  the  platform 
is  a  door  reached  from  the  ground  by  an  inclined  plane 
of  stonework,  by  which  the  bearers  enter  with  the  body 
of  the  dead.  Having  placed  their  burden  in  one  of  the 
receptacles,  they  hasten  out,  when,  from  a  position  in 
the  garden,  the  black  fringe  will  be  seen  to  disappear 
from  the  top  of  the  tower.  The  vultures  are  feeding ! 
Perchance  on  the  body  of  a  sweet,  beautiful  child,  but 
lately  held  in  a  mother's  loving  embrace.  No  one  may 
witness  them  at  their  revolting  feast;  but  presently 
they  return,  satisfied,  to  the  parapet  or  to  a  perch  among 
the  trees.  Two  weeks  after  the  burial  the  bearers  re- 
turn and,  with  a  pair  of  long  tongs,  throw  the  bones 


24  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

into  the  great  well.  The  clothes  in  which  the  dead 
were  wrapped,  as  well  as  those  worn  by  the  bearers, 
are  all  left  inside  the  garden  in  a  small  stone  house, 
where  they  are  burned.  Every  time  the  bearers  carry 
a  body  to  the  towers  they  are  provided  with  new,  pure, 
white  garments  by  the  friends  of  the  deceased.  These 
bearers,  who  prepare  the  dead  and  carry  them  into  the 
regions  of  silence,  must  live  separate  from  the  Parsee 
community,  as  they  are  considered  unclean,  and,  in 
order  to  induce  anyone  to  embrace  this  vocation,  the 
pay  for  the  service  is  placed  very  high. 

The  reason  given  for  this  strange  disposition  of  the 
dead  is  this :  to  hasten  the  return  of  the  body  to  the 
original  elements  worshiped  by  the  Parsees — earth, 
air,  water  and  fire — and  to  maintain  the  greatest  pos- 
sible purity. 

One  wonders,  however,  at  this  explanation,  for  the 
Hindu  method  of  burning-ghats  is  a  far  speedier,  sim- 
pler and  less  repulsive  method  of  accomplishing  the 
same  result. 

There  are  many  strange  stories  and  traditions  con- 
nected with  these  towers.  It  is  even  said  that  if  by 
mistake  a  living  man  should  be  carried  there  in  a  faint 
or  swoon,  and  should  reach  the  interior,  he  would  not 
be  carried  back,  even  were  he  to  revive,  but  the  door 
would  be  closed  and  the  unfortunate  left  to  his  fate. 
Whether  this  is  true  or  not,  it  is  scarcely  more  tragic 
than  the  sight,  often  witnessed  in  Bombay,  of  a  funeral 
procession  being  met  on  the  way  to  the  gardens  by  a 
flock  of  hungry  vultures  which  have  been  waiting  some 
days  for  a  meal. 


BOMBAY  25 

No  one  is  allowed  within  this  enclosure  except  a 
Parsee — so  the  sign  board  said.  But,  like  many  other 
rules,  this  was  made  null  and  void  by  the  jingle  of  a 
little  silver.  The  other  rule,  which  prohibits  anyone 
but  a  bearer  of  the  dead  from  approaching  within 
thirty  feet  of  a  tower,  was,  however,  rigidly  enforced. 
The  masonry  of  the  towers  is  massive.  The  first 
one  was  built  two  hundred  years  ago,  when  the  Parsees 
first  came  to  Bombay.  This  oldest  one  is  only  used  at 
present  by  the  Modi  family  of  Bombay.  The  last  one 
of  the  five  was  erected  forty-five  years  ago.  There  is 
a  sixth  tower,  a  square  one,  standing  by  itself  in  the 
garden,  where  rest  the  bones  of  the  criminals  of  the 
Parsee  community. 

We  took  the  flowers  from  the  old  Parsee  as  a 
souvenir  of  our  visit,  and  turned  from  the  beautiful 
grounds  and  white  towers  with  their  ornaments  of  liv- 
ing bronze.  As  we  drove  along  the  shores  of  the  back 
bay  toward  home,  we  mused  thankfully  on  our 
Christian  burial  rite,  and  Longfellow's  beautiful  coup- 
let came  to  mind — 

Lay  him  who  loved  Mother  Nature, 
Softly  to  sleep  on  her  breast. 

And  the  scenes  in  "Sweet  Auburn,"  across  the  seas, 
in  all  their  naturalness  and  beauty,  seemed  a  fitting  foil 
to  this  spectacle  of  mystery  in  the  cemetery  of  the  fire- 
worshipers  of  Bombay. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 

India  is  ruled  by  the  British,  King  Edward  VII., 
sitting  upon  his  throne  in  London,  is  the 
Maharajah  of  the  Land  of  the  Vedas,  and  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  mind  has  greatly  changed  the  complexion  and, 
modified  the  thought  of  that  oriental  country. 

The  people  of  India  are  not  one,  but  many  peoples. 
The  three  hundred  million  inhabitants  of  that  sunny 
land  include  representatives  of  several  races  of  men, 
whose  complexions  range  from  pure  white,  through 
golden  brown  to  black,  with  mental  culture  of  all 
grades,  from  that  slightly  above  the  animal  to  the 
learned  doctors  of  philosophy  or  of  law.  The  Mar- 
atha  and  the  Madrasi,  the  Parsee  and  the  Panjabi,  the 
Bengali  and  the  Bhil,  the  Gond  and  the  Gurkha,  are 
samples  of  the  variety  of  types  represented.  Besides, 
there  are  the  foreigners;  some  of  them  temporary  so- 
journers, others  who  have  permanently  settled  in  the 
land.  Passing  through  the  streets  of  Bombay  or  Cal- 
cutta one  meets  with  almost  every  nationality  that  the 
sun  shines  upon.  The  Englishman,  of  course,  is  very 
prominent.  Every  other  nation  of  Europe  is  repre- 
sented. The  American  is  there,  too,  and  the  Japanese, 
the  Arab,  the  African,  West  Indian,  Chinaman,  and 
even  the  Fiji  islanders.       But  the  masses  of  peopje 

26 


THE    GOVERNMENT    OF   INDIA         27 

met  with  are  East  Indians,  or  natives  of  the  land,  who 
differ  as  widely  one  from  another  as  the  foreigners 
themselves. 

Another  element  in  this  population  is  the  Eurasian 
— a  mixture  of  European  and  Asiatic  blood,  repre- 
senting every  degree  of  intermingling,  from  almost 
pure  English  to  the  almost  pure  native.  This  class 
numbers  a  hundred  thousand  souls.  They  almost  in- 
variably adopt  the  customs  of  the  Europeans  and  many 
of  them  are  highly  cultured  and  refined. 

The  religions  of  India  separate  its  people  still  more 
widely  than  race  characteristics.  Some  worship  idols, 
back  of  which  are  all  sorts  of  imaginary  spirits,  good 
and  evil — mostly  the  latter ;  others  worship  themselves, 
or  one  another.  Some  worship  the  devil  outright, 
while  others  lift  up  their  hands  and  hearts  in  adoration 
of  the  true  God  who  made  the  heavens  and  the  earth. 
Over  this  mixed  multitude  the  British  flag  waves  and 
the  British  Raj    (Government)  is  supreme. 

The  early  history  of  India  is  little  known.  The 
Hindu  despises  history.  Not  one  in  a  hundred  knows 
the  date  of  his  birth  or  of  the  birth  of  his  child.  The 
origin  of  the  human  race  or  of  the  Hindu  people,  or  the 
date  of  his  sacred  books,  is  as  far  back  as  the  strength 
of  his  imagination  will  carry  it.  In  the  record  of 
national  events  fiction  plays  a  larger  part  than  fact. 
But  from  the  Aryan  invasion,  about  1500  B.  C.,  India 
has  seen  the  rise  and  fall  of  many  governments.  The 
Aryans  conquered  the  aboriginal  tribes,  but  they  them- 
selves became  divided  into  petty  kingdoms.  Some- 
times one  prince  stronger  than  the  rest  would  prevail 


28  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

over  his  neighbors  and  add  their  territory  to  his  own  ; 
but  after  his  death  his  successors  would  lose  the  ad- 
vantage that  he  had  gained. 

About  the  eleventh  century  of  our  era  the  Moham- 
medans gained  a  footing  in  the  Punjab.  They  were 
engaged  in  many  wars,  and  the  rule  that  they  estab- 
lished was  alternately  strong  and  weak,  the  extent  of 
their  territory  varying  with  the  power  of  their  chief 
ruler.  In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  the 
Mohammedan  authority  reached  its  climax  in  the 
Mogul  Dynasty.  The  Taj  Mahal  and  the  forts  at 
Agra  and  Delhi  are  monuments  to  the  splendor  of  that 
Mogul  age. 

When  the  English  first  went  to  India,  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  their  only  motive  was  commercial. 
They  had  seen  the  ships  of  the  Portuguese  and  the 
Dutch  return  from  the  East  laden  with  spices,  ivory, 
pearl  and  other  rich  treasures,  and  they,  too,  wished  to 
share  in  this  trade.  Several  English  merchants  ven- 
tured out,  each  on  his  own  responsibility.  But  a  six- 
months'  voyage  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  with 
a  return  journey  of  equal  length,  made,  too,  in  boats 
much  less  able  to  weather  the  storms  of  the  sea  than 
the  huge  vessels  of  the  present  day,  rendered  individual 
enterprize  hazardous.  The  trading  companies  of  Por- 
tugal and  Holland  were  under  the  patronage  of  their 
governments.  At  that  time  it  was  the  popular  idea 
that  the  sovereign  should  be  the  patron  of  the  trades 
of  his  subjects.  There  had  been  an  effort  for  several 
years  in  England  to  form  a  company  for  trading  in 
the  East  Indias,  but  the  uncertainty    of    its    being 


THE    GOVERNMENT    OF   INDIA         29 

profitable  made  capitalists  hesitate.  Finally  a  company 
was  organized  to  which,  in  the  year  1600,  a  royal  char- 
ter was  granted  by  Queen  Elizabeth.  This  is  popular- 
ly known  as  the  East  India  Company  and  was  given 
the  monopoly  of  the  English  trade  beyond  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  and  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

At  first  this  company  made  voyages  to  India,  tak- 
ing goods  and  money  from  England  and  exchanging 
them  for  commodities  saleable  in  the  homeland.  As 
their  business  increased  they  began  to  acquire  grants 
of  land  in  India  and  to  construct  factories.  Since 
these  properties  must  be  protected,  a  police  force  was 
added,  then  a  standing  army.  At  that  time  there  were 
many  petty  kingdoms  in  India  and  many  chiefs  who 
were  frequently  at  war  with  one  another.  The 
British,  with  their  wealth  and  their  standing  army, 
constituted  a  sort  of  neutral  power.  It  often  hap- 
pened that  a  native  prince  who  was  being  overpowered 
in  war  would  appeal  to  the  Company  for  aid,  and  in 
return  would  grant  it  concessions  of  land  and 
special  trading  privileges  in  his  territory.  As  these 
territorial  possessions  and  the  influence  of  the  company 
increased  it  gradually  became  a  power  to  be  reckoned 
with  in  the  political  affairs  of  India.  One  kingdom 
after  another  fell  into  its  hands  until  the  power  of  the 
company  became,  the  greatest  in  India.  The  East 
India  Company,  being  a  private  enterprise,  the  govern- 
ment received  no  share  in  its  profits,  although  large 
loans  were  often  made  by  it  to  Parliament  in  cases  of 
necessity.  It  was  of  the  nature  of  a  limited  trust  com- 
pany, dependent  upon  Parliament  for  its  authority. 


30  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Its  charter  was  modified  from  time  to  time,  to  suit  new> 
conditions,  and  the  legislation  of  Parliament  concern- 
ing it  was  adapted  to  its  growth  until  it  finally  became 
a  sort  of  provincial  government  for  India. 

This  was  the  state  of  things  when  the  great  Indian 
Mutiny  occurred  in  1857.  After  the  mutiny,  in  the 
year  1858,  the  English  government  assumed  direct 
control  of  British  India.  Queen  Victoria  added  to  her 
title  the  phrase,  "Empress  of  India,"  and  the  British 
East  India  Company  ceased  to  exist. 

At  the  present  time  nearly  all  India  is  under  the 
British  crown,  the  only  exceptions  being  a  small  pos- 
session still  retained  by  the  French  in  the  south,  a 
little  strip  on  the  west  coast  belonging  to  Portugal, 
and  three  native  states — Nepal,  Sikkim  and  Bhutan — 
which  are  independent. 

British  rule  is  of  two  kinds:  1  Direct.  2  Protec- 
torate over  native  states.  There  are  still  many  states 
that  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  British,  but  whose 
territory  has  not  yet  come  into  their  actual  possession. 
These  states  are  allowed  a  measure  of  independence 
and  are  permitted  to  govern  themselves  under  pre- 
scribed limitations.  In  all  cases  their  princes  and 
chiefs  are  bound  by  treaty  engagements  acknowledg- 
ing British  supremacy  and  surrendering  all  right  to 
make  war  or  peace,  to  open  diplomatic  relations  with 
neighbors  or  foreigners,  to  maintain  armies  above  a 
certain  strength,  or  to  offer  hospitality  to  Europeans 
other  than  those  agreeable  to  the  Governor  General. 
In  all  cases  the  treaties  give  power  to  the  British  to 
depose  the  native  ruler  in  case  of  mismanagement.    At 


THE    GOVERNMENT    OF   INDIA         31 

the  court  of  each  important  prince  lives  a  British  Resi- 
dent appointed  by  the  Governor  General,  whose  ap- 
proval must  be  given  to  all  the  laws  enacted  by  the 
native  prince  or  his  council  before  they  can  go  into 
effect. 

About  one-fourth  of  British  India  is  included  in 
these  native  protected  domains.  A  hundred  or  more  of 
them  are  large  enough  to  be  called  states,  but  many 
more  are  mere  chieftainships.  The  most  im- 
portant is  Hyderabad,  in  the  south  central  part  of 
India,  which  includes  a  population  of  ten  million,  over 
against  others  which  number  but  a  few  thousand  each. 
The  other  three-fourths  of  the  country  is  ruled  by  the 
English  directly. 

The  King  of  England  is  the  ultimate  authority  in 
British  India.  He  appoints  a  Secretary  of  State  for 
India,  who  is  the  practical  head  of  affairs,  is  a  member 
of  the  King's  Cabinet  by  virtue  of  his  office  and  re- 
sides in  England.  He  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  from 
ten  to  fifteen  members,  appointed  by  himself  from 
among  distinguished  persons  who  have  lived  in  India 
and  are  acquainted  with  the  country.  The  members 
of  this  council  live  in  England  and  constitute  a  sort 
of  advisory  committee  without  ultimate  authority.  To 
the  Secretary  and  this  council  of  his  appointing  is  in- 
trusted the  conduct  of  all  the  business  transacted  in 
the  United  Kingdom  in  relation  to  the  government  of 
India.  The  House  of  Commons  has  too  much  to  do 
in  other  matters  to  occupy  its  time  and  attention  in 
the  minutise  of  the  Indian  government.  Hence 
it  entrusts  to  the  Secretary,  assisted  by  his  advisers, 


32  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

all  affairs  pertaining  to  the  Eastern  Empire.  The 
House  frequently  discusses  the  actions  of  the  Secretary 
of  State  for  India,  and  expresses  its  approval  or  dis- 
approval, but  seldom  interferes  directly. 

In  India  the  executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  Gov- 
ernor General,  popularly  known  as  Viceroy.  He  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  King,  but  is  under  the  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  India.  He  is  assisted  by  an 
Executive  Council,  consisting  of  six  ordinary  members 
appointed  by  the  crown,  and  from  six  to  twelve  addi- 
tional members  appointed  by  the  Governor  General. 
The  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in  India  is  also 
a  member  of  this  council.  The  various  departments 
of  state,  as  finance,  public  works,  home  affairs,  mili- 
tary works,  are  each  presided  over  by  an  ordinary 
member,  and  the  secretaries  of  each  department  look 
to  him  for  orders.  The  portfolio  of  Foreign  Affairs  is 
usually  held  by  the  Governor  General  himself,  with  the 
aid  of  the  secretaries  and  attaches  of  the  Foreign  Of- 
fice. The  Governor  General,  in  council,  under  the 
sanction  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  India,  has  power 
to  make  laws  for  all  British  India.  For  political  pur- 
poses the  territory  is  divided  into  provinces,  with  a 
chief  executive  officer  for  each.  Two  of  these  prov- 
inces, Bombay  and  Madras,  are  called  presidencies, 
because  they  were  formerly  governed  by  a  president 
and  council.  Their  chief  executives  are  called  govern- 
ors, and  are  appointed  by  the  Crown.  The  heads  of 
the  other  provinces  are  called  either  Lieutenant-gov- 
ernors or  Chief  Commissioners,  and  are  appointed  by 
the  Governor  General.    The  Governors  of  Bombay  and 


THE    GOVERNMENT    OF   INDIA         33 

Madras  are  assisted  by  executive  and  legislative  coun- 
cils. The  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal  has  a  legis- 
lative council.  These  provincial  governments  are 
related  to  the  central  government  of  India,  as  the  sev- 
eral states  in  America  are  related  to  the  government  at 
Washington,  though  the  monarchical  idea  that  prevails 
among  the  British  makes  the  form  of  government  very 
different. 

Each  province  is  divided  into  districts,  or  counties. 
These  vary  in  size,  and  their  boundaries  are  frequently 
determined  by  rivers,  hills,  mountain  ranges  or  other 
landmarks.  The  district  is  really  the  fundamental  unit 
of  administration.  Its  chief  officer  is  called  "collector" 
or  "deputy  commissioner."  The  collector  is  a  magis- 
trate and  has  a  wide  scope  of  magisterial  power,  dif- 
fering in  the  various  provinces.  He  is  also  the  chief 
land-revenue  officer  of  the  district.  He  is  usually 
called  by  the  natives  Bar  a  Sahib  (big  master)  or  some 
similar  title,  and  to  those  not  knowing  from  whence  his 
power  comes  he  seems  a  little  king  in  his  own  terri- 
tory. Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  central  gov- 
ernment of  the  province,  however,  he  is  simply  an  ex- 
ecutive officer  under  very  minute  regulations.  He  has 
a  number  of  assistants,  usually  natives,  whose  number 
varies  according  to  the  size  and  importance  of  the  dis- 
trict. Some  are  magistrates  with  powers  in  civil  or 
criminal  cases ;  others  are  revenue  officers  who,  in  the 
north,  are  called  tahsildars,  a  tahs'il  meaning  "A  place 
of  collecting."  There  are  also  "assistant,"  or  "naib 
tahsildars."  These  again  have  assistants,  as  revenue 
inspectors,  patwaris,  and  the  like. 


34  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Several  districts  are  grouped  together  in  a  "di- 
vision," and  each  division  has  its  commissioner.  This 
officer  ranks  between  the  district  officer  and  the  chief 
commissioner,  and  is  a  very  important  factor  in  the 
government. 

In  the  judicial  department  also  the  system  is  com- 
plete. Each  of  the  provinces  of  Bombay,  Bengal, 
Madras  and  Northwest  Provinces  has  a  High  Court. 
In  the  other  provinces  one  or  more  judicial  commis- 
sioners are  the  highest  judicial  authority.  There  are 
also  civil  and  criminal  courts  descending  to  that  of  the 
munsif,  or  squire. 

In  the  constabulary  each  district  has  its  district  su- 
perintendent of  police,  who  has  under  him  inspectors, 
sub-inspectors,  constables  and  patrolmen.  Each  prov- 
ince has  an  inspector-general  of  police,  who  is  at  the 
head  of  the  provincial  force. 

A  system  somewhat  similar  prevails  in  the  medical 
and  educational  departments.  Each  district  is  supplied 
with  one  or  more  civil  surgeons  and  inspectors  of  edu- 
cation. These  again  are  under  the  direction  of  their 
provincial  officers.  Besides  these  are  the  postal,  excise, 
engineering,  forest  and  other  departments,  each  graded 
to  suit  its  own  requirements,  and  with  each  officer's 
authority  and  duties  specifically  marked  out. 

The  great  majority  of  the  higher  officers  of  gov- 
ernment are  Englishmen.  The  civil  service  (includ- 
ing such  officers  as  collectors,  or  deputy  commission- 
ers, who  may  rise  to  be  commissioners,  chief  commis- 
sioners, lieutenant-governors  and  the  like)  is  now 
entered  by  competitive  examinations.    A  yearly  exam- 


THE    GOVERNMENT    OF   INDIA         35 

ination  is  held  in  England.  The  name  of  each  candi- 
date is  presented  to  a  special  committee.  If,  after 
careful  investigation,  his  health,  moral  character  and 
probable  fitness  are  approved,  he  is  permitted  to  sit 
for  examination.  The  list  of  subjects  upon  which  he 
may  be  examined  is  a  long  one,  some  compulsory 
and  some  optional,  and  opposite  each  subject  is  the 
number  of  possible  marks  allowed  to  each.  The  candi- 
dates receiving  the  greatest  number  of  marks  are 
chosen  to  the  Indian  Civil  Service  in  numbers  propor- 
tional to  the  requirements  of  the  service  for  the  year. 
These  examinations  are  now  open  to  a  limited  number 
of  native  gentlemen,  also,  who  go  to  England  to  pre- 
pare for  it.  After  the  successful  candidates  have  re- 
ceived their  appointments  they  still  have  annual  ex- 
aminations for  several  years  on  law,  vernacular  lan- 
guage and  the  like. 

Candidates  for  other  departments  of  the  govern- 
ment service  must  pass  examinations  in  their  several 
departments,  though  less  severe  than  those  for  the 
civil  service. 

The  British  endeavor  to  give  the  people  of  India 
a  share  in  their  own  government;  thus,  as  just  men- 
tioned, a  limited  number  of  native  gentlemen  is  per- 
mitted to  compete  for  the  civil  service.  Some  of  them 
become  "additional"  members  of  the  Governor  Gen- 
eral's council ;  some  judges  in  the  High  Courts ;  others 
deputy  postmasters  general,  deputy  inspectors  of  edu- 
cation, subordinate  judges,  while  hundreds  of  the 
minor  offices  are  open  to  them.  In  most  places  the 
Municipal  Council    (Board  of  Aldermen)   is  almost 


36  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

wholly  composed  of  native  gentlemen,  some  appointed 
by  the  Collector,  and  the  rest  elected  by  qualified  voters 
of  the  community.  They  have  power  to  act  upon 
measures  presented  to  them  by  the  district  officer  and 
also  to  enact  laws,  subject  to  his  approval. 

To  govern  India  is  not  an  easy  task.  There  are 
local  conditions  that  must  be  taken  into  account.  Many 
of  the  old  customs  of  the  Hindus  and  Mohammedans 
that  have  come  down  from  ancient  time  must  be  re- 
spected so  far  as  is  consistent  with  good,  stable,  moral 
government.  The  English  endeavor  to  accommodate 
themselves  to  these  conditions.  The  laws  of  marriage, 
of  inheritance,  of  adoption,  of  partition  of  property, 
that  have  obtained  for  many  centuries,  remain  to-day 
with  but  little  change.  There  is  also  the  great  system 
of  caste  among  the  Hindus.  Each  caste  has  its  own 
rules  in  regard  to  eating  and  drinking,  marriage,  and 
the  observance  of  religious  rites,  with  its  own  com- 
mittee, or  Panchayat,  in  every  village  or  ward  of  a 
city.  The  Panchayat  sits  in  judgment  upon  its  mem- 
bers on  all  points  pertaining  to  caste-rules  and  on  many 
points  of  moral  conduct.  Usually  the  punishments 
decreed  for  disobedience  to  caste-rules  are  recognized 
and  enforced  by  the  government,  unless  the  culprit 
wishes  to  forsake  his  caste  completely,  in  which  case  he 
is  at  liberty  to  do  so. 

The  great  variety  of  religions  in  India  also  makes 
the  problem  of" government  difficult.  The  many  Hindu 
religions  all  have  some  things  in  common,  but  many 
divergences.  Kali  worship  prevails  in  one  place; 
Maha  Dev  in  another;  Ganpati  in  a  third.    The  Jains 


THE    GOVERNMENT    OF   INDIA         37 

have  a  modified  Buddhism,  and  they,  too,  are  divided 
into  sects.  The  various  reform  movements — as  Arya 
Samaj,  Brahmo  Samaj,  Prathna  Samaj — differ 
greatly.  The  Mohammedan  sects  worship  God  ac- 
cording to  the  teachings  of  the  Arabian  prophet,  de- 
spising idol-worship  as  sincerely  as  the  Christian.  The 
Parsees  reverence  fire,  water,  earth  and  air.  The  gov- 
ernment must,  if  possible,  be  so  administered  as  not  to 
disturb  the  religious  sentiments  of  this  variety  of  peo- 
ple. 

The  diversity  of  languages  in  India  tends  to  sep- 
arate its  people.  There  are  more  than  threescore 
of  independent  languages,  each  prevailing  in  its  own 
territory,  besides  many  dialects  so  distinct  as  often  to 
be  called  separate  languages.  The  collector  familiar 
with  the  speech  and  customs  of  the  Marathis  of  Bom- 
bay may  not  know  a  word  of  Tamil  of  South  India. 
These  people  belong  to  two  different  races. 

Added  to  these  differences  are  the  climatic  varia- 
tions. The  northern  and  southern  extremities  of  the 
territory  are  separated  by  twenty-nine  degrees  of  lati- 
tude. The  characteristics  and  occupations  of  the  peo- 
ples in  the  various  zones  within  these  limits  present 
great  dissimilarities.  In  the  south  the  heat  is  perennial, 
modified  on  either  coast  by  the  oceans  adjoining.  In 
the  north  there  is  intense  heat  in  the  summer,  with 
occasional  snows  in  winter  and  one  monsoon  (rainy 
season)  lasting  from  June  to  October.  There  is  little 
or  no  rain  from  October  to  June.  In  the  south  there 
are  two  monsoons,  making  the  conditions  of  life  un- 
like those  in  the  north. 


'38  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Another  difficulty  in  the  path  of  the  government 
is  the  untrustworthiness  of  the  people  themselves. 
Honesty  and  integrity  are  not  at  par  in  India.  When 
the  farmer  sows  his  seed  he  must  begin  at  once  to 
watch  his  field,  otherwise  his  neighbor  would  inspect 
it  during  the  night,  bringing  his  cattle  with  him,  and  in 
the  morning  the  growing  blades  would  be  eaten  off 
level  with  the  ground.  The  growing  grain  would  all 
be  stolen  if  the  farmer  was  not  on  the  alert.  In  harvest- 
time  the  reapers  must  be  searched  every  evening  to 
make  sure  that  their  pockets  and  shirts  are  not  hiding 
grain.  When  the  crop  is  on  the  threshing-floor  the 
farmer,  or  one  or  more  of  his  immediate  family,  must 
be  there  day  and  night  to  prevent  its  being  carried  off. 
A  servant  left  in  charge  would  probably  sell  a  large 
portion  of  it  and  forget  to  give  the  money  to  the  owner. 
Then  the  farmer  himself  must  be  watched  by  the 
M'dlguzar,  the  Patwari,  the  revenue  inspector,  or  some 
other  representative  of  the  government,  lest  he  sell  his 
grain  and  make  away  with  the  money  without  paying 
his  taxes.  These  minor  officers  of  the  government  must 
be  under  surveillance  lest  they  conspire  with  the  farmer 
to  cheat  the  government.  So  a  great  amount  of  ma- 
chinery is  required  and  an  elaborate  system  of  checks 
and  counterchecks  to  enable  the  government  to  collect 
its  revenue.  Revenue  is  derived  principally  from  land 
tax,  salt  tax,  excise,  income  tax,  licenses  and  octroi. 

In  the  police  department  similar  difficulties  are 
found.  Bribery  is  very  common.  If  a  crime  is  com- 
mitted and  the  native  police  is  given  good  "hush 
money,"  it  is  very  difficult  for  the  English  officers  to 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   INDIA         39 

bring  the  guilty  party  to  light.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
not  infrequently  happens  that  the  police  try  to  make 
business  more  lively  by  trumping  up  a  case  against 
an  innocent  party,  with  the  hope  of  securing  either  a 
present  from  the  accused  as  the  price  of  abandoning 
the  case  or  receiving  favor  from  the  superior  officer  for 
sagacity  in  the  detection  of  crime. 

Like  perplexities  embarrass  the  judicial  depart- 
ment. A  lawyer  can  get  any  number  of  witnesses  to 
swear  to  anything  he  may  dictate  by  paying  two  to 
four  annas  (4  to  8  cents)  to  each  witness  for  his  serv- 
ices. Of  course,  perjury  is  severely  punished  when  it 
is  clearly  proven,  but  the  art  of  dissembling  is  so 
highly  developed  and  the  schemes  are  so  minutely  elab- 
orated that  a  very  shrewd  judge  is  required  to  detect 
a  witness  in  a  lie. 

One  case  will  illustrate  a  large  class  of  the  false- 
swearing:  In  a  certain  village  a  Pat  el  (head  man  of 
the  village)  became  too  familiar  with  the  reputed  wife 
of  the  village  watchman.  The  watchman  went  to  the 
Patel's  house  and  gave  him  a  severe  beating,  using  as 
his  weapon  his  shoe,  which  is  supposed  to  disgrace 
the  recipient  of  the  chastisement  to  the  last  degree.  It 
is  very  rare  that  a  humble  man  will  dare  to  strike  so 
important  personage  as  a  Patel;  but  in  this  case  the 
watchman  was  furious  that  his  home  had  been  defiled, 
though  he  himself  had  never  been  lawfully  married  to 
the  woman  in  question.  After  returning  to  his  house 
the  watchman  bethought  himself  that  the  Patel  had 
not  yet  received  sufficient  punishment  for  his  misdeed 
and  should  be  brought  into  court.     But  if  he  were 


40  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

to  charge  the  Patel  with  immoral  conduct  his  own  af- 
fairs would  be  brought  into  unpleasant  notoriety  in 
the  neighborhood.  A  happy  solution  of  the  difficulty 
flashed  into  his  mind.  He  talked  with  his  friends 
about  the  matter  and  they  agreed  to  assist  him.  His 
plan  was  to  bring  a  charge  of  theft,  instead  of  adultery, 
against  the  Patel.  The  case  was  carefully  devised,  the 
witnesses  thoroughly  trained,  and,  on  the  day  of  the 
trial,  a  dozen  or  more  gave  straight  testimony.  Not 
one  in  any  wise  contradicted  the  other,  and  the  Patel 
was  sentenced  to  six  months  in  jail  for  stealing. 

India  is  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  lawyers, 
both  English  and  native,  and  also  a  few  who  are 
Eurasians.  Some  of  these  are  barristers  and  others 
have  the  lower  rank  of  pleader.  Many  pleaders  are 
being  graduated  from  the  law  schools  of  India.  The 
bright  ones  rise  to  the  top  of  the  profession,  but  with 
many  of  lesser  power  the  question,  "What  shall  we 
eat?"  becomes  a  serious  one. 

The  English  endeavor  to  administer  a  just  and  im- 
partial government,  allowing  all  religions  equal  privi- 
leges. Some  of  the  Hindu  practices  that  were  previ- 
ously sheltered  under  the  cover  of  religion,  such  as 
the  burning  of  widows  on  the  funeral  piles  of  their 
deceased  husbands,  hook-swinging  and  similar  prac- 
tices, have  been  prohibited.  There  still  remain  other 
inhuman  and  immoral  customs  which  will  be  sup- 
pressed in  time. 

All  governments  have  made  more  or  less  mistakes 
in  some  parts  of  their  administration.  The  English  in 
India  are  no  exception  to  the  rule,  and  no  one  rec- 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF  INDIA        41 

ognizes  that  fact  more  clearly  than  the  Englishman 
himself.  Many  errors  have  been  already  corrected, 
but  there  are  yet  points  open  to  criticism,  such  as 
their  encouragement  of  the  opium  and  liquor  traffics  ; 
the  high  salaries  paid  to  English  officers ;  their  failure 
to  improve  the  conditions  of  the  cultivator  or  to  pre- 
vent the  extortionate  interest  taken  by  the  money- 
lenders ;  the  long  instability  of  their  currency,  now  ap- 
parently remedied.  The  moral  character  of  some  of 
the  English  officers  has  not  been  a  blessing  to  India. 
The  majority,  indeed,  are  choice  men  and  many  of 
grand  personality;  yet  others  have  disgraced  their 
position,  and  repelled  the  confidence  of  the  natives. 

However,  British  rule  has  been  an  incalculable 
blessing.  India  has  never  before  had  so  just  a  gov- 
ernment in  all  its  history.  Never  until  now  has  the 
whole  country  known  peace,  since  its  first  settlement. 
The  petty  kingdoms,  with  shifting  boundaries,  that 
formerly  were  engaged  in  frequent  external  and  in- 
ternal wars,  are  now  gathered  under  one  stable  gov- 
ernment, conducted  for  the  benefit  of  the  governed 
and  not  for  the  glory  of  a  single  prince.  There  is  a 
new  feeling  of  security.  Every  one  realizes  that  the 
English  Government  is  firm  and  has  come  to  stay. 
Religious  freedom  is  protected  and  no  one  sect  has  the 
monopoly  of  privileges.  General  education  and  the 
arts  and  sciences  are  promoted  with  great  energy. 
However  dense  the  ignorance  of  the  masses  at  the 
present  day,  and  however  much  the  enlightenment  of 
the  olden  times  may  be  praised  by  the  pandits,  the 
truth  is  that  India  was  never  so  intelligent  as  now. 


42  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Railways,  telegraphs,  electric  power,  factories,  com- 
merce, methodical  and  systematic  government,  schools 
and  colleges  have  been  mighty  forces  for  the  uplifting 
and  development  of  the  country.  But  all  these  have 
come  through  European  civilization.  The  more 
thoughtful  of  the  native  population  recognize  these 
benefits  and  are  grateful  for  them.  The  people  gener- 
ally are  content  with  the  present  rule.  There  are  some 
agitators  there,  as  in  all  countries,  who  endeavor  to 
excite  opposition,  but  with  little  success.  India  has 
large  possibilities  for  development  and  the  British 
have  the  opportunity  and  the  power  to  accomplish 
great  things  in  that  important  part  of  the  Orient. 


CHAPTER  III. 
MISSIONS  IN  INDIA. 

There  are  many  missionary  societies  at  work  in  In- 
dia; yet  hundreds,  even  thousands  of  towns  and  vil- 
lages have  never  been  visited  by  a  missionary.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Missionary  Directory  there  are  ten  Bap- 
tist societies  with  256  missionaries;  two  Congrega- 
tional societies  with  159  missionaries;  ten  Church  of 
England  societies  with  515  missionaries;  fifteen  Pres- 
byterian societies  with  460  missionaries ;  three  Metho- 
dist societies  with  298  missionaries;  ten  Lutheran  so- 
cieties with  259  missionaries;  two  Moravian  societies 
with  2J  missionaries;  two  Friends'  or  Quaker  So- 
cieties with  25  missionaries ;  four  female  societies  with 
108  missionaries;  twenty-three  independent  missions 
with  317  missionaries,  making  a  total  of  eighty-two 
societies  and  2,424  missionaries. 

This  would  give  the  missionaries  about  123,000 
souls  each  to  care  for,  if  they  could  be  evenly  dis- 
tributed among  the  300,000,000  of  India's  people.  To 
build  up  a  successful  mission  in  a  center,  schools,  (day 
and  boarding),  workshops,  colleges  here  and  there, 
zenana  work,  training-classes  and  many  other  depart- 
ments of  work,  are  indispensable.  The  stations  now 
occupied  as  mission  centers  are  about  640. 

43 


44  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Most  of  the  people  reached  belong  to  the  low-caste, 
and  are  very  poor,  ignorant,  helpless,  and  need  much 
teaching  and  care  to  make  them  intelligent  and  sincere 
Christians.  The  per  cent  reached  among  the  high  is 
almost  as  great.  A  gentleman  from  America,  visiting 
in  India,  said  he  thought  a  converted  coolie  or  sweeper 
should  be  just  as  good  a  Christian  as  a  converted  stu- 
dent or  college  president.  Would  he  apply  this  re- 
mark in  the  homeland  and  say  that  a  converted  denizen 
of  the  slums  or  a  converted  waif  should  be  at  once 
as  good  a  Christian  as  a  converted  young  man  from 
college,  who  not  only  accepts  the  salvation  of  Christ 
and  his  precepts  sincerely,  but  does  so  intelligently 
also?  Paul  did  not  seem  to  find  his  converts  quite 
correct  in  practice  for  some  years,  even  though  he  did 
not  charge  them  with  insincerity.  Read  his  epistle 
carefully  and  note  the  things  about  which  he  charges 
those  babes  in  Christ.  How  carefully  the  Christian 
father  and  mother  watch  and  guard  the  little  ones  in 
their  home!  They  know  the  little  hearts  love  God, 
but  of  how  many  pitfalls  they  must  be  warned !  Then 
how  much  more  these  babes  in  righteousness !  A  mis- 
sionary once  said  to  me:  "In  helpfulness  and  wis- 
dom they  are  nearly  all  children,  but  in  knowledge  of 
sin  every  child  is  a  man." 

The  Apostle  said  to  his  people:  "Little  children, 
keep  yourselves  from  idols."  He  knew  how  insidious 
idolatry  is,  how  it  creeps  into  the  marriage  and  burial 
customs,  feasts,  and  daily  life,  and  how  powerful  is 
the  holH  of  old  habits  and  superstitions.    I  will  quote 


MISSIONS   IN   INDIA  45 

the  answer  given  by  my  husband  in  one  of  the  home 
papers  to  the  question :  "What  sort  of  Christians  have 
you?" 

WHAT    SORT    OF    CHRISTIANS    HAVE    YOU? 

The  question  is  often  asked:  "What  sort  of 
Christians  have  you  in  India?"  The  tone  of  the 
questioner  implies  a  little  doubt  about  the  saintliness 
of  our  Christians  here.  We  may  answer  that  we  have 
various  sorts  of  people  under  the  Christian  name. 
They  are  not  all  holy.  Some  of  them  walk  crooked. 
Some  years  ago  one  of  my  native  preachers,  who 
could  speak  some  English,  was  telling  me  about 
another  brother  whose  character  was  somewhat  ques- 
tionable. He  said:  "Sahib,  I  feel  very  doubtless 
about  Ganpat."  So  there  are  some  Christians  about 
whom  we  feel  "doubtless,"  and  shall  probably  feel 
so  until  we  see  them  inside  of  glory. 

Sinful  things  happen  in  America,  where  the  light 
of  the  gospel  illuminated  the  grandfathers  and  great- 
grandfathers, where  the  shadow  of  the  Cross  falls  on 
every  cradle  and  the  songs  of  Zion  are  the  lullabies 
of  every  home.  Here  we  are  in  a  heathen  land. 
Lying  is  almost  universal.  A  lawyer  can  get  all  the 
witnesses  he  wants  to  swear  in  court  to  anything  he 
dictates  for  five  cents  a  head.  A  groeeryman  who 
would  give  full  weight  every  time  without  being 
watched  would  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion.  Little 
girls  of  many  of  the  higher  castes  are  put  behind  the 
purdah  and  are  kept  practically  locked  up  to  keep 
them  pure.  Boys  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  and  girls 
of  ten  or  twelve  become  husband  and  wife  that  they 
may  not  violate  the  rules  of  decency.  A  Hindu 
told  me  recently  that  in  a  certain  town  of  10,000  peo- 
ple probably  not  one  in  twelve  was  chaste.  I  think 
the  condition  is  better,  however,   than  he  estimated. 

In  an  atmosphere  like  this,  where  from  child- 
hood up — yes,  from  past  generations — sin  of  every 
kind  has  abounded,  and  has  been  looked  upon  as  so 
light  a  thing,  is  it  any  wonder  that  some  of  our 
converts  find  it  difficult  to  comprehend  at  once  and 


46  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

live  up  to  the  Christian  standard?  After  Paul  had 
preached  a  long  time  in  Corinth  and  indoctrinated 
the  people  in  the  truths  of  the  Gospel  he  went  to 
another  city;  but  after  some  time  he  heard  that  one 
of  the  young  church  members  at  Corinth  was  living 
with  his  father's  wife,  and  that  the  church  thought 
so  little  of  it  that  they  had  not  even  disciplined  the 
young  man.  I  never  heard  of  a  case  like  that  in 
India. 

We  occasionally  have  someone  here,  like  Paul's 
Hymenaeus  and  Alexander,  who  has  to  be  turned  over 
to  the  devil.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  we  have  others 
like  Pandita  Ramabai,  who,  although  coming  out  of 
the  moral  slime  of  India,  are  spotless  white  lilies 
with  hearts  of  gold.  The  Church  in  India  is  taking 
hold  of  Christ  and  his  truth,  and,  considering  the 
hole  of  the  pit,  from  which  it  has  been  digged,  the 
moral  degradation  of  the  heathen  from  among  whom 
our  Christians  have  come,  the  washing  of  regenera- 
tion and  renewing  of  the  Holy  Ghost  are  very  marked 
in  the  Indian  Church. 

This  is  an  answer,  brief  and  to  the  point ;  but  many 
wonderful  examples  of  deeply  spiritual  lives  might  be 
cited  in  our  Hindustan  Church,  comprising  all  de- 
nominations. A  little  item  which  I  noticed  once  in 
some  notes  of  a  correspondent  from  Rangoon  might 
be  given  to  show  that  even  among  the  unlettered  con- 
verts there  is  often  deep  conscientiousness  about  their 
Christian  duty.  Near  Toungoo  there  is  a  large  num- 
ber of  Christian  Karens,  whom  the  Baptist  mission- 
aries have  taught  to  especially  honor  the  Sabbath  day. 
An  English  district  official,  while  on  tour,  decided  to 
strike  camp  and  make  a  march  one  Sunday.  To  this 
end  he  made  requisition  for  transport  upon  a  neighbor- 
ing Karen  village.  Imagine  his  surprise  when  the 
Karen  headman  told  him  that,  as  it  was  Sunday,  he 


MISSIONS   IN  INDIA  47 

and  his  people  must  spend  the  day  as  they  believed 
right ;  but  on  the  next  day  would  be  ready  to  help  him 
on  his  journey.  The  official's  dignity  was  offended 
and  he  laid  hands  on  the  Karen  and  maltreated  him. 
A  missionary  sought  redress  from  the  official,  but, 
obtaining  none,  appealed  to  higher  officials.  The  of- 
ficial Sabbath-breaker  was  severely  reprimanded,  and 
the  Lieutenant  Governor  said,  in  his  reply:  "I  am 
authorized  to  say  that  his  honor  would  discountenance 
any  attempt  to  compel  Christian  natives  of  the  coun- 
try to  work  on  Sunday." 

Many  suffer  persecution  of  the  most  violent  kind, 
and  yet  remain  true  to  their  profession  of  faith  in 
Christ.  Others,  while  not  tormented  bodily,  go 
through  extreme  mental  suffering  on  account  of  losing 
friends,  family — all,  when  they  come  out  openly  as 
Christians.  This  was  the  case  of  Sooboo  Nagam 
Ammal,  whose  story  appears  in  this  chapter.  We  know 
a  young  Parsee  lad  in  Poona  who  was  converted  in 
Bombay  at  the  street-preaching  of  the  missionaries  and 
their  helpers.  His  family  cast  him  off  entirely  and 
he  found  employment  in  an  office  at  thirty  rupees  (ten 
dollars)  per  month.  This,  to  him,  was  starvation 
pay,  as  he  had  been  used  to  every  luxury.  Too  poor 
to  even  ride  on  the  street  cars,  he  would  stand  on  a 
corner  and  watch  the  elegant  equipage  of  his  father 
roll  by,  containing  his  proud  mother  and  beautiful 
sisters  in  rich  silks  and  costly  jewels.  This  young 
man  finally  entered  a  training-class  in  Poona  to  fit 
himself  for  a  Gospel  worker,  never  expecting  to  re- 


48  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

ceive  any  more  worldly  aid  than  the  pittance  paid  him 
in  the  office. 

Another  young  man,  a  former  Brahmin,  was  so 
humble  and  devout  that  he  willingly  taught  a  school 
composed  of  sweeper-boys.  Earnest  Christians  at  home 
are  not  always  willing  to  teach  once  a  week  in  a  negro 
school,  yet  this  could  not  evidence  their  devotion  as 
did  the  act  of  the  Brahmin  youth,  for  whatever  our 
race  prejudices,  in  our  religion  we  are  taught  that 
there  is  neither  Jew  nor  Greek,  bond  nor  free;  while 
this  boy's  teaching  from  childhood  had  been  to  regard 
the  Sudra  and  the  out-caste  as  unworthy  even  to  be 
touched  or  to  hear  the  truth. 

Another  young  man  we  know  about  was  tied  to  a 
beam  in  the  room,  an  ax  held  over  him  and  threatened 
with  having  his  tongue  burned  through  for  uttering 
the  name  of  Jesus.  His  father-in-law,  for  he  had 
been  married  in  childhood,  had  his  little  girl's  head 
shaved  in  token  that  she  was  a  widow;  yet  none  of 
these  things  moved  this  brave  young  spirit. 

In  the  Khassia  Hills,  in  the  Welsh  mission  near 
Shillong,  there  is  a  Christian  village.  The  few  who 
have  not  yet  become  real  Christians,  join  the  others  in 
observing  the  Sabbath.  An  old  chief,  or  sirdar  there, 
for  years  used  to  bring  an  annual  thank-offering  to  the 
Lord  of  a  tenth  of  all  his  earnings,  besides  giving  a 
monthly  subscription  to  the  ministry  and  other  objects. 
On  one  occasion  he  asked  a  missionary  to  write  down 
each  item  of  income  received  during  the  year.  Then 
he  said :  "Add  them  up  and  divide  by  ten,  that  I  may 
know  how  much  I  owe  to  the  Lord."     That  evening,  at 


MISSIONS   IN  INDIA  49 

a  church-meeting,  the  old  chief  brought  a  large  bundle 
of  rupees  and  laid  it  on  the  table  as  his  thank-offering 
to  his  Lord  and  Master. 

If  many  county  chiefs  in  Christian  lands  would 
bring  similar  bundles  to  the  Lord  yearly,  how  fast  the 
Gospel-car  would  move!  Many  steadfast  and  deeply 
spiritual  Christians  are  well  known  to  all  who  have 
worked  in  India.  Zahur  Ul-Haqq  of  North  India, 
who  became  a  presiding  elder  in  the  American  Metho- 
dist mission,  was  a  grand  man,  who  after  much  perse- 
cution had  the  happiness  of  winning  both  wife  and 
sons  to  the  Christian  religion.  In  the  American  mis- 
sion at  Nagar  a  Hindu  boy  attending  the  school  was 
converted,  who  but  recently,  after  a  long  and  devoted 
life,  went  to  his  reward.  This  was  Ramchandra  Ba- 
baji  Powar.  When  he  decided  to  openly  confess  his 
faith  he  was  subjected  to  great  persecution.  When  his 
mother  found  that  he  was  firm  she  beat  her  breast  with 
a  large  stone  until  it  swelled.  Then  she  went  home 
and  hid  herself  in  a  dark  chamber  and  was  never  seen 
by  anyone  until  the  day  she  died,  a  few  months  after. 
This  news  almost  overwhelmed  Mr.  Powar,  but  he  was 
sustained  by  his  trust  in  God.  He  was  baptized  by 
the  Rev.  Murray  Mitchell  and  received  into  the  Free 
Church.  He  taught  his  little  girl-wife  the  truths  of 
the  Christian  religion  and  she,  too,  was  at  length 
baptized.  He  was  well-educated  and  received  offers 
of  government  service,  but  refused  all  to  preach  God's 
word ;  yet  he  would  not  be  ordained,  as  he  thought  it 
wrong  to  call  a  man  reverend." 


SO  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

You  might  extend  this  list  and  have  a  modern 
eleventh  chapter  of  Hebrews,  for  time  would  fail  to  tell 
of  the  faith  of  Ramabai,  Chundra  Leela,  the  converted 
fakir,  and  of  many  others  in  the  Indian  Christian 
Church. 

What  more  wonderful  story  of  heroism  than  that 
of  Sooboo  Nagam  Ammal  ?  She  belonged  to  a  proud, 
high-caste  family  in  Madras.  Her  father  was  a  judge 
in  the  High  Court  and  her  husband  was  in  government 
employ.  She  was  a  pet  and  indulged  favorite  at  home, 
for  her  husband  had  never  taken  her  to  his  home,  as 
she  was  one  of  a  pair  of  twins  and  born  on  a  Friday ; 
so  her  coming  would  bring  misfortune  to  his  house. 
She  was  honored  as  a  married  woman,  however,  and 
riches  and  position  count  in  India  as  elsewhere.  To 
her  was  intrusted  the  worship  of  the  gods,  and  in  all 
ceremonies  and  rites  she  became  proficient.  Her  de- 
sire to  become  perfect  in  all  these  caused  her  to  long 
for  the  accomplishment  of  reading,  as  then  she  could 
read  the  sacred  Vedas  and  .know  more  about  the  will 
of  the  gods.  At  this  time  she  was  having  manufac- 
tured a  golden  image  of  herself  bowing  before  her 
favorite  god.  This  was  to  adorn  a  temple  which  she 
was  building  with  her  own  means.  No  one  could  be 
found  who  would  teach  her  except  the  Zenana  Mission 
workers.     This  greatly  disturbed  her  people. 

"Yes,  they  will  teach  you  to  read,  but  they  will 
also  teach  you  this  new  religion  about  Jesus." 

"No,  no,"  Sooboo  told  them.  "What  they  teach  me 
about  that  will  go  in  one  ear  and  out  the  other." 


MISSIONS   IN  INDIA  51 

The  lessons  of  this  newer  and  purer  religion  did 
not  go  out,  however,  but  sank  into  an  earnest  and  in- 
quiring heart,  for  the  haughty  Brahmin  bowed  at  the 
feet  of  the  lowly  man  of  Nazareth  and  learned  of  him. 
Her  hope  was  that  she  might  remain  in  her  home  and 
teach  her  relatives  and  friends.  But  this,  in  an  ortho- 
dox Hindu  house,  is  well-nigh  impossible.  Persua- 
sions, caresses,  then  coldness,  and  finally  persecution 
followed.  A  plot  was  set  on  foot  by  which  they 
hoped  to  spirit  her  away  to  a  temple  in  Bangalore  and 
there  dedicate  her  to  the  god  of  the  temple.  In  con- 
nection with  thousands  of  temples  in  India  there  are 
houses  for  the  poor  girls  who  are  married  to  the  gods. 
These,  in  reality,  become  the  temple  prostitutes.  In 
Western  India,  around  Poona,  hundreds  of  little  girls 
are  married  in  this  way  to  "Khandoba."  Even  a  beau- 
tiful Eurasian  child  was  with  difficulty  saved  from  this 
fate,  which  her  heathen  mother  had  planned.  When 
Sooboo  heard  this  she  fled  at  night  to  the  missionaries' 
bungalow.  Here  her  friends  and  relatives  followed  to 
persuade  her  to  return;  but  she  had  chosen  the  true 
God,  and  Jesus,  whom  He  had  sent  to  redeem  men. 

When  persuasion  and  threats  all  failed  her  family 
made  an  effigy  of  Sooboo,  which  they  carried  through 
the  streets,  wailing  out:  "Sooboo  is  dead!  Sooboo  is 
dead!"  As  she  listened  to  this  she  found  it  almost 
unbearable.  But  finally  she  took  her  fingers  from 
her  ears,  realizing  that  Sooboo,  the  once  proud,  "twice- 
born"  Brahmin  Sooboo,  was  indeed  dead ;  but  that  she 
was  alive  again  in  Christ,  who  can  do  all  things.  The 
effigy  was  burned  on  the  funeral-pyre  and  Sooboo's 


52  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

old  mother  went  forth  from  that  house  of  wealth  to 
beg  her  way  on  foot  to  the  sacred  Ganges,  where  she 
scattered  the  ashes  of  the  image  of  her  daughter, 
hoping  thus  to  expiate  her  sin.  Sooboo  is  now  "dead" 
to  them  in  a  way  that  none  of  our  loved  dead  ever  be- 
come. 

On  the  day  she  was  baptized  she  stepped  forward 
and  sang  in  Tamil : 

"Jesus,  I  my  cross  have  taken, 

All  to  leave  and  follow  thee; 

Naked,    poor,    despised,    forsaken, 

Thou  from  hence  my  all  shall  be." 
Was  this  song  ever  more  literally  sung? 
And  now,  going  from  village  to  village  and  into  the 
Zenanas,  this  humble  follower  of  the  meek  and  lowly 
one,  spends  her  days.  While  on  a  visit  to  America 
and  speaking  here  and  there  of  her  own  experience 
and  of  her  sisters  all  over  India,  she  said :  "My  heart 
is  always  in  Madras  I"  Many  of  these  shut-in  women 
of  India  are  "gems"  for  the  Master's  crown.  I  have 
changed  the  beautiful  verses  from  Gray's  elegy  to  fit 
such  souls  as  these: 

Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene 

The  dark  unfathomed  "Purdah"  homes  doth  bear; 

Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  that  poisoned  air. 

But  into  India's  closest  shut-in  home 

The  loving  Savior's  call  has  sounded  sweet, 

And  leaving  wealth  and  rank  and  all,  they  come 
And  break  their  alabaster  boxes  at  his  feet. 

Vishnu  Bhaskar  Karmarkar,  the  father  of  the  Chris- 
tian family  of  Karmarkars,  in  Bombay,  was  a  notable 


MISSIONS   IN   INDIA  53 

convert  of  the  past  generation.  As  a  teacher  in  a 
government  girls'  school,  he  came  in  contact  with 
Christian  missionaries,  whom  he  had  invited  to  come 
and  teach  embroidery  and  sewing  in  his  school.  After 
he  was  induced  to  read  the  Bible,  he  soon  became  con- 
vinced of  its  truth  and,  as  soon  as  he  decided  to  ac- 
cept Christ  as  his  personal  Savior,  bitter  persecution 
came  and  his  foes  were  those  of  his  own  household. 
Once  a  great  mob  came  prepared  to  take  him  to  a 
shrine  to  have  the  rites  of  purification  performed,  and 
to  receive  him  back  into  caste.  He,  too,  was  cere- 
monially cremated  and  counted  as  dead.  His  position 
as  principal  of  the  school  was  taken  away,  as  parents 
refused  to  send  their  daughters  to  a  Christian  teacher. 
The  missionaries  then  offered  him  a  school  in  which 
there  were  many  low-caste,  or  pariah  children.  This 
was  possible  to  the  once  proud,  bigoted  Brahmin,  only 
because  he  had  received  the  power  from  Christ's  grace 
and  example.  From  among  the  few  pupils  who  came 
from  the  higher  castes,  Vishnu  chose  his  life  com- 
panion. They  two  were  instrumental  in  securing  great 
privileges  from  the  crown  for  the  Christian  com- 
munity. The  Hindus  forbade  the  Christians  to  draw 
water  from  the  public  wells.  These  two  Christians, 
formerly  high-caste  Hindus,  decided  to  stand  for  their 
old  rights  and  privileges  and  thus  secured  a  great 
blessing  to  the  entire  Christian  community.  Accord- 
ingly Sarzabai,  Vishnu  Karmarkar's  wife,  went  to  a 
well,  and,  amid  the  protests  and  threats  of  the  crowd, 
drew  a  pitcher  of  water.  The  next  day  she  found 
the  water  polluted  and  quietly  passed  on  to  another 


54  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

well.  This  aroused  a  great  storm.  The  Hindus  ap- 
pealed to  the  courts  to  protect  their  wells  from  the 
despised  Christians.  Vishnupunt  Karmarkar  was 
summoned  and  urged  not  to  disturb  the  peace-loving 
Hindus.  He,  however,  stood  firmly  for  his  rights, 
requesting  the  judge  to  deal  with  the  case  according 
to  the  law,  which  gave  him  liberty  to  use  the  public 
wells.  The  judge  referred  the  matter  to  the  Bombay 
government.  From  there  it  went  to  the  Viceroy  and 
then  to  the  Queen,  who  decided  in  favor  of  the  native 
Christians.     (Res.  No.  34,  9th  August,  i860.) 

Vishnu  Karmarkar  founded  a  printing-press  in 
Bombay,  which  his  sons  operated  for  some  years  after 
his  death.  His  elder  brother  was  converted  at  one  of 
his  services  of  song.  Having  given  up  caste,  position 
and  family,  he  has  founded  a  new  family  of  Christian 
Karmarkars,  who  are  prominent  in  Christian  benevo- 
lence and  usefulness.  Both  sons  are  in  the  ministry, 
one  being  a  Yale  divinity  graduate,  while  the  daughter 
gives  her  time  and  energy  to  teaching  a  class  of  poor 
children  in  Colaba,  Bombay. 

As  this  old  veteran  was  dying  he  asked  his  children 
to  sing: — 

Oh!  happy  day  that  fixed  my  choice 
On  thee  my  Saviour  and  my  God. 

Then  he  said :  "Open  the  door  and  let  me  fly  above. 
I  desire  to  enter  a  large  place." 

CHUNDRA  LEELA. 

This  woman,  when  left  a  widow,  determined  to 
spend  her  life  in  securing  peace  of  soul.  In  order  to 
do  this  she  went  to  shrine  after  shrine,  visiting  Jaga- 


MISSIONS   IN  INDIA  55 

nath,  Benares,  Ramanath  and  many  other  sacred  sites. 
At  one  time  she  sat  among  the  "seven  fires."  That  is, 
fires  built  all  around  her  and  the  blazing  May  sun  over 
head.  Seeking  truth  she  went  about  begging  bread 
and  inflicting  torture  upon  herself  until  she  heard  the 
Gospel  story — and  her  fetters  were  broken.  Ever 
since  then  she  has  gone  about,  seemingly  tireless, 
teaching  her  new  faith  and  the  redemptive  power  of 
Christ,  and  anxious  to  do  as  much  for  her  loving 
Savior  as  she  used  to  do  for  heathen  gods.  These 
are  some  of  the  trophies  of  Christian  missions.  But 
we  may  not  speak  of  these  only.  The  failure  and 
apostasy  of  the  weak  ones  should  spur  us  on  to  teach 
and  preach  more  indefatigably.  What  may  we  expect 
in  a  land  of  heathen  darkness  and  among  a  people  used 
to  idolatry  and  its  practices? 

Sometimes  village  Christians,  untutored  and  super- 
stitious, are  drawn  away  by  the  sophistry  of  the  old 
priests  whom  they  feared  and  obeyed  before  they  em- 
braced Christianity.  One  of  the  saddest  as  well  as 
one  of  the  most  tragic  of  such  events  was  told  me  by 
a  person  most  intimately  concerned  and  affected. 
Phcebe  Rowe  was  among  our  most  remarkable  and 
most  devoted  of  Eurasian  evangelists.  She  gave  her 
life  to  labor  among  the  low-caste  Christians.  Especially 
did  her  heart  go  out  to  the  women  in  such  commu- 
nities. One  day  she  went,  in  company  with  Mother 
Catherine  and  the  native  pastor,  to  visit  a  village  which 
could  receive  but  scant  pastoral  care  on  account  of  the 
amount  of  work  put  upon  one  pair  of  shoulders.  When 
they  entered  the  town  everything  was  in  the  greatest 


56  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

confusion.  All  the  inmates  of  the  little  mud-huts  had 
congregated  in  an  open  space,  where,  led  by  the  priests 
of  their  caste,  they  had  set  up  a  shrine  to  "Lall  Beg," 
the  red  prince,  and  were  preparing  to  offer  cocks  as 
sacrifice  to  him.  The  poor,  weak  Christians  were 
abashed  at  the  appearance  of  their  pastor  and  the  be- 
loved evangelist  and  her  helper.  After  much  plead- 
ing by  the  latter,  and  noisy  threatenings  from  the 
priests,  who  saw  that  their  craft  was  in  danger,  the 
people  declared  their  willingness  to  return  to  allegiance 
to  the  Christians'  God. 

"Then  destroy  the  shrine,"  the  pastor  suggested. 
But,  looking  at  the  angry  priests,  they  were  afraid  to 
comply.  In  spite  of  their  better  judgment,  they  feared 
disaster  would  follow  such  a  daring  act. 

"May  I  do  it  ?"  the  pastor  asked,  for  he  feared  its 
presence  among  them.  They  consented  and  the  poor 
little  shrine  of  clay  and  lime  was  soon  utterly  de- 
molished. The  pastor,  however,  wishing  to  demon- 
strate the  nothingness  of  the  idol,  called  on  him  (Lall 
Beg)  to  destroy  him  if  he  had  any  power. 

"Let  Lall  Beg  destroy  me  to-night  if  he  has  any 
power,"  he  said. 

At  about  eleven  o'clock  Miss  Rowe  was  called  to 
the  pastor's  tent,  to  find  him  in  violent  convulsions, 
and  in  a  few  hours  he  was  dead.  Miss  Rowe  herself 
felt  weak  and  ill,  and  soon  after  went  to  the  hills, 
where  she,  too,  died  after  two  weeks.  Shall  we  at- 
tribute this  to  the  machinations  of  the  baffled  priests,  or 
is  it  possible  that  it  was  a  coincidence?  We  do  not 
believe  it  could  have  been  a  mere  coincidence.     Miss 


MISSIONS   IN   INDIA  57 

Rowe,  in  writing  to  me  about  it,  said  that  it  was  the 
most  depressing  thing  that  had  ever  come  into  her 
experience.  Of  course,  many  in  that  village  and  many 
in  surrounding  villages  returned  to  "Lall  Beg's"  wor- 
ship. Can  we  hope  to  find  no  apostasy  amid  such 
hoary  heathenism  as  that  of  India? 

But  it  is  not  only  among  the  high-caste  that  we 
find  such  conversions  as  Karmarkar's,  Powar's,  Pun- 
dita  Ramabai's,  or  Kali  Banner jee's,  a  pleader  in  the 
High  Court  of  Calcutta,  but  many  among  the  humble 
people,  are  faithful  even  unto  death. 

Many  low-caste  boys  and  girls  are  attaining  to 
honorable  positions  in  the  community  and  are  winning 
thousands  of  their  own  people.  Amid  persecution 
which  has  never  touched  us;  amid  heathen  supersti- 
tions and  iron-bound  caste-rules,  is  growing  up  a  peo- 
ple from  many  peoples;  a  noble  brotherhood  and  sis- 
terhood having  one  faith,  one  ambition,  one  hope,  one 
God. 

ORPHANAGES  IN  INDIA. 

In  all  the  various  missions  in  India,  supported  by 
money  from  America,  Great  Britain,  Australia  and 
other  countries,  we  find  these  beneficent  institutions. 
Thousands  of  homeless  children  are  gathered  into  these 
orphanages,  cared  for,  instructed  and  trained  for  use- 
ful lives. 

During  years  of  famine  in  India,  when  the  harvests 
fail,  is  the  time  for  the  great  harvest  of  children  to  be 
gathered  into  these  orphanages  and  trained  and  taught 
in  the  pure  religion  of  Christ.  Many  orphanages  were 
born  of  the  famine  of  1876-77  and,  during  the  famine 


58  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

of  1896-97,  through  which  we  ourselves  passed,  in  one 
of  the  worst  affected  districts  in  India,  thousands  of 
children  were  rescued  and  given  homes  in  these  Chris- 
tian institutions.  And  now,  while  I  write,  the  present 
famine  of  1899- 1900  is  upon  us  and  this  rescue  work 
is  still  going  on.  In  Gujerat  alone,  in  one  mission, 
there  are  over  1,700  boys  and  girls  now  in  the  orphan- 
ages, and  this  same  mission  expects  the  government  to 
give  them  as  many  more  when  the  poorhouses,  estab- 
lished during  the  famine,  shall  be  closed.  In  other 
parts  of  India  this  same  work  is  going  on.  These 
schools  not  only  impart  book-knowledge  to  the  boys 
and  girls,  but  in  almost  all  cases  the  teaching  embraces 
useful  manual  employments,  trades  and  industries.  In 
the  girls'  schools,  I  know  of  the  following  industries 
being  taught:  Domestic  work,  needle- work,  knitting, 
crocheting,  net-making,  pillow-lace,  thread-buttons, 
weaving,  bead-work,  reed-basket  making,  spinning, 
carpet-making,  cotton-raising,  gardening,  bread  and 
cake-making,  laundry  work,  copying  and  various  other 
occupations. 

From  this  you  will  see  that  the  schools  are  educat- 
ing the  girls  away  from  many  of  the  nonsensical  caste 
ideas  that  cripple  individuality  and  tend  to  idleness  and 
shiftlessness.  For  example,  people  here  in  India  re- 
ceiving as  low  wages  as  $4.00  a  month,  or  even  as  little 
as  $2.75,  will  nevertheless  hire  their  washing  done. 
So  degrading  is  "Dhobis'  work"  considered,  that  some 
sub-castes  among  the  "Knights  of  the  Broom,"  as  the 
sweepers  are  called,  will  not  eat  with  those  who  do  this 
work. 


MISSIONS   IN  INDIA  59 

There  is  no  one  thing  more  trying  to  an  energetic 
person  from  England  or  America  than  the  prevalent 
indolence  in  India.  Hindu  and  Mohammedan  women 
often  sit  idle  for  hours,  while  the  house,  the  clothing 
and  the  children  are  fairly  crying  out  for  attention. 
Even  native  Christian  women,  who  have  never  been 
taught  a  single  useful  art  in  their  girlhood,  or  who 
have  been  taken  from  school  before  they  were  really 
trained,  will  sit  idle  at  their  doors  for  hours.  To  train 
them  after  they  are  married  and  have  little  ones  around 
them  is  extremely  difficult.  The  well-trained  girls 
from  our  schools  are  often  helpful  as  Bible-women, 
besides  keeping  themselves,  their  children  and  their 
houses  neat  and  tidy.  In  many  cases  they  bring  in  a 
little  revenue  to  the  home  by  employing  leisure  mo- 
ments in  sewing,  knitting  or  crocheting.  In  a  school 
in  Ajmere,  the  girls  are  taught  laundry-work  with  the 
aid  of  proper  American  wash-boards.  When  these 
girls  marry  young  men  working  at  trades,  they  will  not 
be  ashamed  to  do  the  family  washing.  In  the  mission 
with  which  I  am  best  acquainted  there  are  more  than 
three  thousand  girls  in  the  schools.  A  small  propor- 
tion of  this  number  are  boarders,  and  their  parents 
pay  fees  according  to  the  salaries  they  receive.  The 
greater  part  are,  however,  orphans,  most  of  whom  have 
been  rescued  during  the  famine  times  already  men- 
tioned. Many  of  these  girls  will  go  out  as  teachers 
and  helpers  in  mission  work,  but  the  majority  will 
undoubtedly  marry  men  who  are  now  boys  in  the  mis- 
sion schools.  These  boys,  as  we  have  seen,  are  also 
being  trained  to  manual  labor,  thus  even  those  who  are 


6o  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

capable  of  entering  the  professions  will  not  look  upon 
work  as  degrading  as  the  caste  people  do.  And  so, 
from  different  classes,  we  shall  see  growing  up  an 
industrious,  self-respecting  and  independent  Christian 
community,  and  the  question  of  Church  autonomy  in 
India  will  find  its  solution.  In  the  boys'  schools  the 
variety  of  industries  taught  is  perhaps  still  greater. 
They  embrace  telegraphy,  bookkeeping,  shoemaking, 
carpentry,  wire-mattress  weaving,  cloth-weaving,  farm- 
ing, wood-carving,  bookbinding,  printing,  tailoring  and 
many  others. 

From  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  boys'  schools  we  have 
the  report  of  a  principal  who  was  in  charge  for  four- 
teen years,  who  states  that  to  his  knowledge  one 
hundred  and  five  had  left  the  school  to  enter  useful 
employment,  the  greater  number  becoming  mission- 
workers.  A  large  number  went  from  this  school  to 
study  theology  and  afterwards  entered  the  ministry, 
while  some  are  editors  or  assistant  editors.  In  one 
case,  from  another  school,  a  sweeper-boy  is  reported 
who  grew  up  in  the  orphanage  and  afterwards  took 
the  degree  of  B.  A.,  and  is  now  head  master  in  a  high- 
school.  Of  twenty  girls'  schools,  whose  condition  and 
history  I  have  studied  well,  there  are  over  one  thousand 
pupils  who  are  really  Christian  in  heart  and  life,  while 
there  are  many  more  who  are  Christian  nominally. 
From  these  same  schools  at  least  twelve  have  become 
Bible-women  and  Zenana  workers,  three  evangelists, 
two  doctors,  and  fifty-five  teachers;  but  most  of  the 
pupils  are  still  too  young  to  indicate  what  their  future 
will  be.     Indeed,  all  the  schools,  with  but  few  excep- 


MISSIONS   IN  INDIA  Gi 

tions,  are  young;  therefore,  we  cannot  as  yet  give  a 
clear  idea  of  the  vast  amount  of  good  being  done  by 
these  institutions.  Some  of  the  histories  of  the 
boys  and  girls  now  in  the  schools,  and  of  men  and 
women  who  have  gone  out  from  them,  are  interesting 
and  pathetic  in  the  extreme.  One  Bible-woman,  who 
is  now  working  at  Bassim,  was  sold  by  her  mother  in 
the  famine  of  1876-77  for  four  annas  (eight  cents) 
and  then  resold  to  a  Gypsy  tribe  for  twelve  rupees. 
From  the  latter  she  was  rescued  and  reared  in  the 
orphanage. 

Another  woman's  story  reads  like  a  romance.  In 
the  famine  of  1861  her  parents,  having  no  food  to  give 
her,  buried  her  alive,  doubtless  thinking  by  so  doing 
to  get  rid  of  one  mouth  to  feed  and  also  to  end  the 
little  one's  sufferings.  The  earth  was  loose  and  dry, 
and  the  child  worked  her  head  out.  In  this  condition 
she  was  found  by  a  native  policeman,  who  brought  her 
to  the  orphanage  at  Bareilly,  where  she  was  reared 
and  educated.  She  was  married  over  thirty  years  ago 
to  a  preacher,  who  became  a  fully  ordained  minister 
ten  years  later.  She  has  reared  a  family  of  twelve 
children — eleven  girls  and  one  boy — and  by  those  who 
know  her  she  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  devoted 
of  women,  an  exemplary  minister's  wife  and  an  effi- 
cient worker  in  the  church.  All  her  children  have 
done  well.  As  a  leader  of  meetings,  writer  of  essays 
and  a  noble  mother,  she  is  one  of  the  finest  women  in 
our  native  church. 

There  are  many  more  such  stories  to  be  told  of  the 
boys  and  girls  from  these  schools.     The  curriculum  of 


62  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

study  is  that  prescribed  by  the  government  in  the  vari- 
ous vernaculars  of  India.  Most  of  the.  schools  re- 
ceive grants  appropriated  to  tuition  from  government 
funds,  depending  upon  the  examinations.  This  is 
really  a  very  small  amount.  The  bulk  of  the  support 
is  from  benevolent  people  in  Christian  lands,  for  food 
and  clothing  and  shelter  must  be  provided  as  well  as 
instruction.  The  opportunity  for  religious  and  moral 
training  is  very  important.  Adult  converts  rid  them- 
selves of  heathen  practices  and  superstitions  but  slowly, 
especially  if  uneducated  and  ignorant,  but  the  children 
in  these  schools,  in  very  many  instances,  attain  a 
Christian  character  which,  without  such  training,  is 
seldom  reached  until  the  second  or  third  generation 
of  Christianizing. 

A  missionary  of  over  forty  years'  experience  in 
India,  who  has  herself  been  for  years  in  charge  of  a 
large  orphanage,  gives  the  following  recommendation 
to  the  boys  and  girls  she  has  known  to  go  out  from  the 
schools.  She  says :  "Some  of  our  best  teachers  and 
preachers  were  educated  in  our  orphanages;  some  fill 
important  positions;  some  are  good  doctors  and,  in- 
deed, I  don't  know  how  we  could  have  gone  on  with 
our  work  without  the  help  we  have  had  from  the  orphan 
boys  and  girls." 

These  children,  who  are  not  cared  for  by  their 
families,  become  our  very  own,  and,  while  undoubtedly 
some  prove  unthankful  and  return  to  Hinduism  and 
Mohammedanism,  yet  the  great  majority  become  in- 
structors of  their  own  people,  build  up  the  Christian 
church  in  India  and  exemplify  Christian  living  in  a 
dark  and  idolatrous  land. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
CITY  OF  THE  PESHWAS. 

Poona,  called  the  City  of  the  Peshwas,  was  at  one 
time  the  scene  of  Sivaji's  warlike  glory,  and  after- 
ward that  of  the  Peshwas,  who  had  their  rise  under 
Sivaji's  grandson.  This  grandson  was,  for  a  long 
time,  held  in  captivity  by  the  Mohammedans,  among 
whom  he  learned  habits  of  luxury  and  indolence  and 
became  very  unlike  his  warlike  ancestors.  When  he 
came  into  possession  of  his  kingdom  he  resigned  the 
management  of  his  territories  to  his  prime  minister, 
giving  him  the  title  of  Peshwa.  This  title  and  au- 
thority became  hereditary,  and  the  power  o*5t  the  Pesh- 
was soon  exceeded  that  of  the  kings.  These  Peshwas 
built  up  the  great  Maratha  Confederacy,  having  its 
headquarters  in  Poona.  While  the  Marathas  have 
no  distinct  political  power,  yet  here  they  still  hold 
bigoted  and  almost  undisputed  religious  sway;  here, 
too,  is  the  seat  of  much  political  unrest  and  occasional 
outbreaks  against  the  English  government. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  finer  race  of  men 
than  the  Maratha  Brahmins,  and  their  dress  is  calcu- 
lated to  accentuate  their  naturally  attractive  appear- 
ance. Their  pugries  or  head-dresses  are  very  becom- 
ing, and  the  gold  threads  woven  into  the  cloth  from 
which  the  pugries  are  made,  give  an  effect  of  richness 
and  refinement  to  their  heads.      The  women  are  not 

63 


64  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

kept  in  purdah  as  are  most  high-class  Hindu  and  Mo- 
hammedan women  in  other  parts  of  India.  While  the 
male  and  female  members  of  the  household  live  very 
separate  lives,  and  there  is  nothing  to  correspond  to 
our  ideas  of  society  and  social  equality  of  the  sexes, 
yet  the  women  are  seen  driving  about  the  city  and 
in  the  parks  and  going  on  foot  as  well,  without  cover- 
ing their  faces  unless  to  ward  off  a  particularly  imper- 
tinent stare.  The  Marathi  women  (the  ending  a  is 
masculine  while  the  i  is  feminine)  would  be  much  finer 
looking  were  it  not  for  their  manner  of  dressing  their 
hair,  which  is  drawn  back  so  tightly  that  it  causes  total 
or  partial  baldness  on  the  sides  and  crown  of  the  head. 
They  wear  many  jewels  and  a  company  of  the  younger 
women,  who  still  have  plenty  of  black  hair,  when  in 
holiday  attire,  present  a  very  attractive  appearance. 

The  city  of  Poona  has  now  a  population  of  130,000. 
It  is  built  on  a  bare,  rocky  plateau  of  the  western  ghats, 
about  2,000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  surrounded  by 
rocks  and  hills  and  the  level  stretches  are  very  barren 
in  appearance.  In  and  about  the  city,  particularly 
in  the  Cantonments,  or  European  section,  there  are 
beautiful  tree-lined  drives  and  avenues. 

The  city  is  considered  healthy  for  the  most  part, 
but  during  the  time  of  plague  it  had  an  awful  visita- 
tion. The  sanitary  measures  considered  necessary  by 
government,  were  strongly  resented  by  the  people, 
especially  the  inspection  of  houses,  which  was  looked 
upon  as  an  interference  with  sacred  customs  and  an 
insult  to  the  privacy  of  the  women.  Many  wives  of 
English  officials,  appreciating  both  the  prejudices  of 


AMERICAN  MISSIONARY   IX  MARATHI  COSTUME. 


GROUP  OF  HIGH-CASTE   YOUTHS,    POOXA,   IXDIA. 


CITY  OF  THE  PESHWAS  65 

this  proud  people  and  also  the  necessity  on  the  part 
of  government  to  stay  the  plague  by  all  possible,  law- 
ful means,  stepped  nobly  into  the  breach  and  volun- 
teered to  visit  the  houses  themselves  in  place  of  the 
soldiers  deputed  for  this  work.  Even  this  sacrifice 
did  not  prevent  much  disturbance,  which  culminated  in 
the  murder  of  two  English  officials. 

The  population  is  of  high-and-low-caste  Hindus,  a 
good  portion  of  Mohammedans  and  8,000  Europeans, 
including  the  English  soldiers.  In  the  native  city 
there  is  an  institution  for  the  education  of  high-caste 
youths,  and  Poona  claims  to  have  had  the  first  girls' 
school  in  India.  In  the  English  portion  there  are 
comfortable  bungalows,  as  the  better  sort  of  houses  are 
called,  and  many  schools  and  colleges.  On  the  occa- 
sion of  a  great  fete,  given  by  the  Governor's  wife  to 
all  European  school-children,  there  were  present  1,400 
children.  This  suggests  the  importance  of  the  Eu- 
ropean element  in  the  city.  The  crowded  native  city, 
with  its  bazaars  of  cloth-shops  and  sweetmeat  stands, 
and  with  brass  and  other  wares,  is  very  interesting. 
Some  of  the  unique  curios  in  Poona  are  the  putlies,  or 
images  done  in  clay  and  colored  most  artistically  and 
true  to  life.  These  represent  the  various  castes  and 
occupations  in  Indian  society  and  life. 

All  classes  sit  on  the  floor  while  eating  and  use 
brass  or  silver  plates.  If  the  company  is  large,  green 
leaves,  such  as  the  banana  leaf,  may  do  duty  as  plates. 
All  eat  with  their  fingers.  Much  of  the  cooking  is  very 
palatable  and  pleasant. 

At  a  wedding  breakfast  we  saw  a  curious  custom. 


66  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

At  the  close  of  the  meal  the  bride  took  a  good-sized 
ball  of  sweetmeat,  or  soft  candy,  and,  with  her  fingers, 
pushed  it  into  the  husband's  mouth.  The  bridegroom 
then  selected  a  similar  sweet-ball  and,  breaking  off  a 
very  small  piece,  placed  it  in  the  mouth  of  the  bride. 
This  may  not  be  meant  to  be  symbolical,  but  in  India 
it  is  certainly  the  tiny  bite  only  of  life's  sweetmeats 
that  usually  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  poor  wife. 

The  special  gods  worshiped  here  are  the  sacred 
bull,  Ganesha,  the  elephant-headed,  and  especially 
Parwati,  one  of  the  forms  of  Siva's  wife.  To  the 
latter  is  erected  the  special  temple  found  in  Poona. 
Ganesha  is  often  called  the  "God  of  Wisdom,"  but  Sir 
Monier  Williams  contradicts  the  appropriateness  of 
the  title  and  claims  that  he  is  the  god  of  humble  vil- 
lages and  of  the  lower  orders.  He  is  usually  invoked 
at  the  beginning  of  a  book  and  before  examinations  are 
undertaken.  This,  however,  is  not  that  he  may  impart 
wisdom,  but  that  he  may  protect  from  evil  spirits  and 
demons  who  will  obstruct  the  student's  progress.  The 
view  held  by  Hindu  aspirants  to  literary  honors  is  a 
very  comforting  one.  It  ascribes  all  failure  to  the 
workings  of  bad  spirits  and  powers  and  not  at  all  to 
intellectual  incapacity.  This  insures  a  man's  equani- 
mity even  in  government  examinations,  whatever  the 
result,  whether  an  actual  degree  of  "F.  A."  or  "B.  A.," 
or,  as  they  express  it,  "F.  A."  failed  or  "B.  A."  failed, 
the  reply  to  your  inquiries  will  be  the  same :  "Khuda  ka 
Marzi"— "It  is  the  will  of  God." 

There  are  many  students  here,  and  Poona  prides 
herself  on  being  among  the  foremost  of  Indian  cities 


CITY  OF  THE  PESHWAS  67 

in  point  of  education.  This  does  not  prevent  her  from 
hissing  a  public  lecturer  should  he  seem  to  trench  upon 
their  old  religion  or  urge  too  strongly  the  claim  of  a 
new  faith. 

TEMPLE  OF  PARWATI. 

On  a  high  hill,  outside  and  to  the  south  of  the  great 
heathen  city  of  Poona,  stands  the  temple  of  Parwati. 
After  Benares,  this  temple  is  perhaps  the  best  place 
in  which  to  see  real  idolatry.  Here  there  is  not  that 
wanton  reveling  in  all  that  is  coarse  and  loathsome 
that  we  see  at  Benares,  but  here,  too,  many  of  the 
symbols  and  images  are  of  such  a  character  as  to  for- 
bid their  being  mentioned  in  detail.  We  drive  for  about 
three  miles  from  the  European  part  of  the  city,  over 
beautiful,  paved  roads,  between  cactus  and  lantana 
hedges  which  border  banana  swamps  and  garden 
patches.  This  brings  us  to  the  foot  of  the  hill,  which 
can  be  ascended  in  chairs  borne  by  coolies  or  on  foot. 
Preferring  to  walk,  we  raised  the  inevitable  umbrella 
and  began  the  climb.  The  hill  is  about  300  feet  high 
and  the  top  is  reached  by  a  winding  flight  of  wide,  low 
stone  steps,  which  carry  you  up  and  around  the  eleva- 
tion. These  steps  are  of  various  sizes.  Sometimes 
one  walks  across  a  slab  for  seven  or  eight  feet  before 
the  next  step  is  reached.  Each  step  or  terrace  is  on 
a  steep  incline,  making  the  whole  ascent  very  difficult. 
The  Prince  of  Wales,  when  visiting  India,  ascended 
these  steps  on  the  back  of  an  elephant,  which  must  have 
been  anything  but  a  pleasant  mode  of  climbing.  We 
saw  numbers  of  bullocks  coming  up  by  another  and 
narrower  road,  carrying  skins  and  vessels  filled  with 


68  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

water  for  use  in  the  temple  worship.  At  various  points 
we  stopped  to  rest  and  look  at  the  beautiful  land- 
scape below.  The  river  Tapti,  winding  its  way 
through  the  fertile  strip  of  its  own  making,  the  canal 
bringing  drinking-water  from  the  great  artificial  lake 
Karakka  Wasla,  out  on  the  distant  hills,  and  all  the 
diversity  of  grove,  field  and  village  and  the  city  itself, 
were  clothed  by  distance  in  added  beauty  and  divested 
of  squalor  and  uncleanness.  At  one  of  these  resting- 
places  we  stood  under  a  spreading  neem  tree,  quite 
near  the  steps.  There  was  a  sort  of  stone  altar  near 
the  trunk,  and  here,  as  late  as  1875,  although  contrary 
to  law  at  that  time,  Hindu  widows  were  burned  alive 
with  the  dead  bodies  of  their  husbands.  The  old 
priest  who  pointed  out  the  spot  smiled,  seeming  in  no 
way  horrified  at  the  thought.  As  we  proceeded  on 
our  way  we  thought  of  the  wailing  processions  which 
had  ascended  the  hill,  stopping  under  the  neem  tree  for 
the  horrible  rite  of  suttee,  and  then  proceeding  to  the 
temple  to  perform  their  worship — no  one  weeping  for 
the  young  life  sacrificed,  except  perhaps  the  little  ones 
whom  cruel  custom  thus  made  motherless  because  al- 
ready fatherless.  I  wondered  if  the  children  were  al- 
lowed to  see  their  mother  burned — but  the  mere  thought 
was  unendurable,  and  I  was  glad  when  we  reached  the 
top.  The  temple  is  surrounded  by  nondescript  build- 
ings— small  temples,  each  containing  an  idol,  rows  of 
cells  for  the  celibate  priests,  or  stables  for  the  sacred 
cattle  kept  there.  In  the  little  temples  or  shrines, 
containing  each  a  single  image,  there  is  a  small  space 
in  front  of  the  idol  where  the  worshiper  sits  or  kneels 


CITY  OF  THE  PESHWAS  69 

while  performing  puja,  or  worship.  Ganesha  or  Gun- 
patti;  the  sun-god,  and  many  others  were  thus  en- 
shrined. A  fine  golden-domed  structure  shelters  the 
principal  idol,  representing  the  goddess  Parwati,  for 
whom  it  is  named.  This  image,  like  most  of  the 
others,  is  made  of  finest  alabaster  and  ornamented  with 
gold,  silver  and  jewels,  A  number  of  richly  clothed 
Brahmin  women  were  prostrating  themselves  before  it 
and  offering  flowers,  oil  and  butter  before  the  shrine. 
These  women  were  unveiled,  as  it  is  only  when  in  other 
parts  of  India  where  purdah  is  strictly  observed  that 
the  Marathi  women  keep  purdah.  We  saw  them  be- 
fore the  image  of  the  sacred  bull,  and  it  was  piteous 
to  see  the  coarse  and  even  low  actions  performed  in 
accordance  with  the  teachings  of  their  religion,  while 
otherwise  they  appeared  to  be  good  and  modest  women. 
Many  of  the  priests  go  through  the  ceremonies  as 
meaningless  rites  which  hold  no  solemnity  for  them. 
Wishing  to  have  a  picture  of  one  of  them  at  worship 
we  asked  a  young  fellow,  who  spoke  good  English, 
if  we  might  photograph  him.  He  said  if  we  would 
give  him  six  annas  we  might.  He  then  went  off  to 
bathe  and  came  back  almost  naked,  crawling  into  the 
shrine  and  beginning  to  arrange  his  little  vessels  of  oil 
and  incense.  He  first  warned  us  not  to  speak  to  him 
while  he  was  praying,  but  as  he  kept  his  eyes  on  the 
camera  nearly  all  the  time,  we  feared  his  silence  was 
merely  the  fulfilling  of  the  letter  of  the  law.  This 
young  priest  afterwards  told  us  that  he  believed  in 
none  of  these  things.  He  had  been  educated  in  a 
Christian  college  and  he  said  he  knew  there  was  noth- 


70  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

ing  in  all  this  flummery;  but  as  he  had  succeeded  to 
this  position  on  the  death  of  his  brother,  his  family 
would  be  disgraced  if  he  refused.  It  was  a  lucrative 
place.  Why  should  he  not  take  it  ?  It  was  probably 
this  same  priest  who  gave  the  striking  and  perchance 
prophetic  answer  to  Bishop  Foster,  who,  in  company 
with  Bishop  Thoburn,  visited  this  temple.  The  bishop 
asked  him:  "How  long  has  all  this  worship  been 
going  on  here?"  "For  thousands  of  years"  was  the 
reply.  "And  how  long  will  it  last?"  the  bishop  in- 
quired. "Not  long,"  the  young  priest  replied.  "And 
why,"  continued  the  bishop.  The  Hindu  hesitated,  but 
raising  his  hand  and  pointing  with  his  finger  he  swept 
the  line  of  the  horizon  and  simply  said,  "Jesus."  It 
was  the  old  prophecy  in  the  grand  old  hymn : 

Jesus  shall  reign  where'er  the  sun 
Does  his  successive  journeys  run; 
His  kingdom  spread  from  shore  to  shore 
Till  moons  shall  wax  and  wane  no  more. 

These  idols  are  bathed,  fed,  put  to  sleep  and 
awakened.  The  idea  is  that  the  image  imprisons  a 
spirit  which  is  pleased  with  libations  of  oil  or  butter 
and  offerings  of  grain  and  flowers.  The  spirit  con- 
sumes the  ethereal  portion  of  the  food  while  the  priests 
take  the  substantial,  as  is  well  evidenced  by  their  fat 
and  flourishing  condition. 

When  putting  the  idol  to  sleep,  unearthly  music 
on  conch  shells  and  other  queer  instruments  is  made. 
A  similar  noise,  with  the  addition  of  some  bell-ringing 
serves  to  awaken  him.  No  wonder  the  prophet  of  old 
told  the  people  derisively  to  cry  aloud,  as  perchance 
their  god  slept  or  had  gone  on  a  journey.     Judging 


CITY  OF  THE  PESHWAS  71 

from  the  almost  incessant  noise  in  some  temples,  the 
god  must  be  a  sort  of  Morpheus.  Washings,  prayers, 
offerings  and  caste-observances — these  are  the  religion 
of  the  Hindu,  with  the  Brahmin  as  his  spiritual  head, 
if  the  term  spiritual  may  be  applied  to  cruelty,  avarice 
and  moral  decay.  Religion  is  not  connected  with 
morality,  as  we  understand  it.  To  eat  with  a  low- 
caste  man  is  a  far  more  heinous  crime  than  to  lie, 
steal  or  commit  adultery,  if  these  things  are  done  in  a 
way  that  shall  not  hurt  caste.  In  each  caste  there  is  a 
Panchaiyat  or  council  of  five  and  this  council  regulates 
or  decides  upon  the  permissibility  of  certain  acts  or 
of  conduct  in  general,  while  the  outward  worship  is 
offered  to  the  gods.  Thus  they  follow  cunningly  de- 
vised fables  and  degrade  the  God-head  to  the  level  of 
the  loathsome  creatures  represented  by  the  idols.  This 
is  the  essence  of  idolatry.  It  is  not  a  harmless  bowing 
down  to  wood  and  stone,  as  many  in  Western  lands 
imagine  it.  There  is  an  inwardness,  corresponding  to 
this  outward  worship,  which  is  full  of  vileness  and 
corruption.  Many  otherwise  inexplicable  traits  in  the 
people  become  plain  as  we  search  for  the  meaning  of 
these  rites  and  symbols  of  idolatry.  The  gods  and 
goddesses  worshiped  in  the  guise  of  wood  and  stone 
and  gold,  are  impure  and  full  of  uncleanness.  No 
wonder,  even  in  beautiful  Athens,  before  the  Acropolis 
crowned  with  its  marvelous  temples  of  the  gods,  that 
Saint  Paul's  heart  was  filled  with  grief  as  he  saw  the 
people  wholly  given  over  to  idolatry.  How  much 
more  in  India,  where  there  is  not  even  esthetic  beauty 
to  gloss  over  the  moral  corruption  of  the  gods !    For  as 


?2  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

the  gods  are,  so  shall  the  people  become.  But  all  this 
shall  indeed  not  last  long,  as  the  Brahmin  said.  Some 
day  on  'Parwati  another  temple  shall  stand,  containing 
no  idol  or  shrine  and  only  witnessing  the  offerings  of 
meek  and  lowly  hearts,  and  the  worship  shall  be  that 
of  Jesus. 


CHAPTER  V. 
CHILD- WIDOWS. 

The  stories  of  one  little  widow,  and  of  Runabai, 
given  in  later  chapters,  exhibit  the  condition  of  child- 
widows  in  a  sufficiently  strong  light,  yet,  lest  some  may 
think  these  are  isolated  cases,  a  few  additional  facts 
and  examples  may  be  valuable  to  show  that  their  lot 
is  always  a  pitiable  one,  though  they  are  not  treated 
with  equal  severity  in  all  parts  of  India. 

Among  the  various  nationalities  in  India,  Hindus 
form  the  larger  proportion.  Altogether  there  are 
140,000,000  women  in  India,  while  among  the  Hindus 
alone  there  are  23,000,000  widows.  Taking  from 
these  the  aged  widows,  widows  with  families  and 
widows  of  all  but  the  two  higher  castes,  Sir  William 
Hunter  says  that  "there  can  be  no  less  than  one  mil- 
lion young  widows  of  the  Brahmin  and  Rajput  castes 
to  whom  the  system  of  enforced  celibacy  must  be  held 
to  be  a  cruel  infringement  of  their  natural  rights." 
These  were  widowed  in  early  childhood.  He  further 
says  that,  adding  these  to  young  women  in  other  high 
castes,  there  can  be  no  less  than  two  million  of  widows 
to  whom  the  existing  Hindu  law  is  an  injustice  and  a 
wrong.  These  two  million  women  are  equal  in  num- 
ber to  all  the  women  in  Scotland.  All  Hindu  girls  at 
the  age  of  fifteen  are  either  wives  or  widows.  This  is, 
of  course,   owing  to  the   system   of   child-marriage 

73 


74  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

which  was  instituted  to  escape  the  disgrace  of  having 
an  unmarried  daughter  on  the  parents'  hands.  In  1856 
a  law  was  passed  by  the  English  government  legalizing 
the  remarriage  of  widows.  Some  few  earnest  re- 
formers have  been  brave  enough  to  marry  educated 
widows  from  Pandita  Ramabai's  school,  and,  here  and 
there,  similar  cases  occur;  but  the  iron  law  of  custom 
is  so  strong  that  few  are  able  to  face  the  terrible 
ostracism  and  boycotting  resulting  from  such  a  pro- 
cedure. The  widow,  if  she  marries,  loses  all  claim 
to  her  first  husband's  property,  though  if  she  remains 
unmarried  and  lives  a  sinful  life  she  can  still  hold  her 
inheritance. 

Rammohun  Roy,  India's  greatest  modern  reformer, 
accomplished  much  against  fearful  odds  for  the  eleva- 
tion of  women.  He  was  the  first  native  of  rank  and 
influence  who  broke  through  the  invincible  prejudice 
of  centuries  and  crossed  the  "black  water."  He  ar- 
rived in  England  in  1830  and  did  all  he  could  to  pre- 
vent the  repeal  of  the  bill  abolishing  sati  (usually 
written  as  pronounced,  suttee).  This  bill  was  passed 
in  1829,  through  his  exertions,  and  has  never  been 
repealed.  For  years  before  the  horrible  custom  of 
immolating  widows  on  the  funeral  pyre  of  their  hus- 
bands had  been  forbidden  by  law,  the  English  officials 
used  to  be  present  to  give  the  widow  a  fair  chance  of 
escape,  if  at  last  she  repented  of  the  assent  she  had 
given  to  the  fearful  rite.  Previous  to  the  English  rule 
the  priests  were  accustomed  to  force  her  back  upon  the 
pyre  to  fulfill  her  vow.  Although  this  dreadful  cus- 
tom has  been  abolished  for  nearly  three-quarters  of  a 


CHILD-WIDOWS  75 

century,  yet  so  sad  is  the  lot  of  the  widow  that,  as  a 
Hindu  expresses  it,  "she  now  endures  cold  suttee" 

Mrs.  Fuller  quotes  a  number  of  Indian  gentlemen 
in  regard  to  the  woes  of  Indian  women  and  the  dis- 
advantage under  which  they  labor,  and  I  shall  take  a 
few  of  these  quotations  because  some  may  think  that 
missionaries,  seeing  isolated  cases,  magnify  the  con- 
dition as  a  whole.  Some  men  and  women  of  India, 
being  happily  situated  themselves,  deny  the  statements 
because  they  have  not  come  into  personal  contact  with 
suffering.  Hence  they  find  it  difficult  to  believe  it 
exists. 

In  our  own  land  and  in  England,  how  many  favored 
women  know  absolutely  nothing  of  the  sorrows  of  the 
slums  in  their  own  cities !  Pundita  Ramabai  has  said 
that  when  she  was  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  of  age, 
although  she  had  visited  nearly  every  sacred  shrine  in 
India  with  her  parents  and  brother,  yet  she  was  so 
shielded  that  she  never  knew  of  the  evils  then,  which 
in  later  life  she  so  graphically  set  forth  after  seeing 
them  herself.  Many  live  very  exclusive  lives  in  their 
own  caste  and  know  very  little  of  what  occurs  in  other 
castes  about  them.  We  take  a  quotation  from  the 
"Indian  Social  Reform"  of  December,  1898: 

In  the  days  of  my  early  childhood,  in  those  days 
when  the  mind  can  hardly  penetrate  through  the 
thick  folds  of  mystery  which  shroud  half  the  things 
of  this  world,  my  simple  mind  was  drawn  to  the 
subject  of  the  Hindu  Widow.  Her  melancholy  attire, 
her  disfigured  head,  her  care-worn  appearance,  the 
rude  way  in  which  she  is  handled  by  our  society,  all 
these  created  in  me  the  impression  that  the  widow 
somehow  belonged  not  to  the  ranks  of  the  two  recog- 


y6  MOSAICS  FROM  JNDIA. 

nized  sexes,  that  possibly  she  might  be  a  being  of  a 
third  sex,  or  else  a  member  of  a  totally  different 
species  of  the  animal  world.  Nearly  twenty-five 
years  have  elapsed  since  that  crude  notion  entered 
my  brain,  and  yet  not  all  the  education  and  the 
experience  I  have  gained  have  totally  erased  that 
belief  of  mine,  though  they  have  considerably  mod- 
ified it,  as  they  do  many  of  our  childish  vagaries 
and  crudities.  Verily  the  Hindu  widow  belongs  to  a 
separate  sex,  a  different  order  of  living  things ! 
Widowhood  anywhere  is  tormenting  enough,  and  in 
this  glorious  land  of  Arvavartha,  custom  adds  insult 
to  injury. 

Another  quotation  from  the  same  paper : 

The  fiat  has  gone  forth  that  all  widows  in  the 
land  should  invariably  live  lives  of  celibacy.  In 
obedience  to  the  mandates  of  custom,  all  Ifindu 
widows  are  celibates,  or  must  seem  so.  But  custom 
is  not  satisfied  with  this.  The  crown  of  her  head 
must  be  rudely  handled  by  the  man  of  the  razor.  Not 
all  the  shrieks  of  the  sorrowing  children,  the  inde- 
scribable misery  of  the  widow  herself,  can  interpose 
between  the   monster  and  his  victim. 

The  third  quotation  is  from  an  educated  gentleman, 
Dr.  R.  G.  Bhandarker,  C.  I.  E.,  Vice-chancellor  of  the 
Bombay  University.  December  27th,  1894,  in  an  ad- 
dress he  said: 

Custom  is  a  god  whom  our  race  devoutly  wor- 
ships, and  religious  sanction  has  acceded  to  these 
practices  by  the  insertion  of  later  texts  in  the  later 
books.  The  question  now  is,  whether,  with  our  minds 
liberalized  by  English  education  and  contact  with 
European  civilization,  we  shall  still  continue  to  wor- 
ship custom  and  be  its  slaves,  and  allow  our  moral 
sentiments  to  remain  dead  and  our  unjust  and  cruel 
practices  to  flourish.  If  an  education  does  not  lead 
us  to  protest  against  them,  that  education  must  be 
considered  to  be  merely  superficial.  Custom  has 
been  and  is  an  authority.     Custom  is  our  religion. 


CHILD-WIDOWS  77 

Many  Indian  gentlemen  there  are  who  firmly  be- 
lieve many  of  the  Hindu  customs  to  be  wrong  and 
cruel,  yet,  in  the  face  of  social  ostracism,  few  are 
brave  enough  to  marry  widows,  though  ever  so  beau- 
tiful— women  who  perhaps  never  saw  the  men  whose 
death  had  plunged  them  into  life-long  disgrace  and 
celibacy.  How  often  the  poor  young  things  fly  into 
open  sin  to  escape  the  thralldom  of  their  lot !  What 
easy  victims  these  poor,  ill-treated  girls  are  to  design- 
ing, wicked  men,  who  promising  comfort  and  love  en- 
compass the  ruin  of  their  confiding  victim ! 

One  little  widow,  granted  by  her  father  as  a  gift 
to  Ramabai,  had  been  dreadfully  burned  by  her  mother- 
in-law  because  she  had  tasted  the  food  before  the  men 
had  eaten.  The  father  of  the  child,  coming  on  a  visit, 
saw  the  scars  and  became  furious.     He  shouted : 

"If  I  lose  caste  or  not,  I'll  not  allow  my  child  to  be 
so  treated,"  and  took  her  away. 

In  Poona  I  visited  a  Brahmin  family  in  company 
with  Mrs.  S.  Stephens,  M.  D.  The  man  was  very 
kind  to  his  little  sixteen-year-old  wife.  When  their 
first  child  was  born,  and  it  proved  to  be  a  girl,  he  said 
he  would  now  have  an  opportunity  of  demonstrating 
the  sincerity  of  his  theories  about  female  education. 
The  Brahmin  rule  forbids  a  man  to  take  his  wife's 
hand  or  to  kiss  her  until  two  weeks  after  a  child  is 
born,  on  pain  of  being  called  unclean.  His  own  ser- 
vants— Brahmins,  of  course — would  in  such  event  re- 
fuse to  cook  for  him  unless  he  first  took  a  thorough 
bath.  This  man  would  tenderly  kiss  the  little  girl- 
wife  before  he  left  for  business  and  submitted  to  re- 


78  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

peated  bathings  so  as  not  to  go  hungry.  During  Dr. 
Pentecost's  meeting  he  was  induced  to  come  and  hear 
the  Gospel.  The  day  after  he  attended  the  meeting  he 
was  taken  ill.  When  we  called  there  he  had  high 
fever.     We  talked  a  little  to  him.     He  said : 

"Wasn't  it  strange  that  after  I  had  heard  one  ser- 
mon I  should  be  laid  by  like  this?  But  God  will  do 
right.     I  am  trusting  myself  to  him." 

He  never  rose  from  that  fever.  He  wanted  to 
write  out  his  will  regarding  his  wife — how  she  should 
be  treated — as  he  abhorred  the  custom  of  ill-treating 
widows.  Of  course,  he  could  not  leave  her  any  prop- 
erty or  place  her  in  an  independent  position,  as  all  the 
property  was  held  jointly  by  the  brothers;  still  it  is 
probable  that  had  he  written  his  desire  to  have  her 
placed  in  Ramabai's  care  to  be  educated,  his  brothers 
might  have  respected  his  wish.  But  pen  and  paper 
were  refused  him  and  no  one  would  write  for  him. 
When  Ramabai  heard  of  his  death,  she  said : 

"Poor  Mrs.  Kirteney!  His  parents  are  orthodox 
Hindus ;  the  property  was  joint ;  she  is  at  the  mercy  of 
the  household." 

It  is  hard  to  realize  the  utter  helplessness  of  the 
Hindu  widow.  Many  stories  could  be  written  by 
those  who  go  about  in  high-caste  homes  and  see  the 
poor  shaven  heads  and  the  little  figures  hiding  in  cor- 
ners or  behind  doors.  I  always  single  them  out  for 
kind  words  and  notice,  but  they  are  almost  too  timid  to 
respond.  They  think  it  a  favor  if  someone  is  kind 
enough  to  motion  them  to  leave  their  drudgery  and 
listen  to  the  hymns  we  sing  and  which  the  women  love 


CHILD-WIDOWS  79 

so  much  to  hear.  Before  I  knew  much  about  the 
widow's  lot  I  used  ignorantly  to  ask  in  regard  to  one 
of  these  crouching,  timid  figures  :  "Who  is  that  ?"  No 
one  ever  told  me  her  name  or  relationship.  Simply 
pointing  the  thumb  over  the  shoulder  (she  was  sure  to 
be  in  the  background)  and  giving  a  contemptuous  jerk 
of  the  chin,  the  answer  was  :  "Only  a  widow." 

One  dear  little  girl  in  Ramabai's  school  received 
word  that  as  she  was  now  twelve  years  old,  it  was 
time  for  her  to  break  off  her  little  armlets  and  have 
her  head  shaved.  She  must  come  home  for  these  de- 
grading things  to  be  done  and  the  father  thought  they 
wuold  keep  her  at  home  to  wash  and  cook  and  scrub. 
The  child  was  nearly  frantic.  Every  time  she  heard 
wheels  she  would  run  and  hide.  She  begged  not  to 
be  sent  back,  but  Ramabai  was  powerless.  But  the 
father  never  came  for  the  child.  In  Ramabai's  words : 
"He  meant  to  come  and  take  her  back  to  misery,  but 
he  died."     The  child  was  overjoyed  at  the  news. 

Do  not  read  all  this  about  the  baby  and  girl-widows 
and  think  of  it  as  a  far-away  story  of  a  far-away,  un- 
real land,  but  picture  your  own  golden  or  brown-haired 
darling  as  one  of  these  widows  in  India.  Little  chil- 
dren, two  million  of  them,  crying  to  be  delivered  from 
the  curse  implied  in  that  word,  "widow!" 

PUNDITA  RAMABAI,   THE  WIDOWS*    CHAMPION. 

When  we  came  to  India,  ten  years  ago,  one  of  the 
pleasures  to  which  I  looked  forward  was  meeting  the 
little  Christian  woman,  once  a  Brahmin  widow,  who 
had  done  so  much  for  her  afflicted  Indian  sisters,  suf- 


8o  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

fering  under  the  curse  of  enforced  widowhood.  Hav- 
ing read  of  her  life  and  work  I  hoped  I  might  be 
privileged  to  meet  her  in  India.  Our  first  two  years 
were  spent  in  Poona,  where  is  situated  the  Sharada 
Sadan  (home  for  widows)  which  Ramabai  had 
founded,  and  it  was  our  privilege  not  only  to  meet  this 
wonderful  woman,  but  to  become  her  warm  friends. 
It  was  in  her  home  that  we  first  saw  Indian  living,  and 
here  we  took  our  earliest  lessons  in  the  difficult  opera- 
tion of  eating  with  our  fingers  and  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  the  hot  dishes  which  the  people  of  Hin- 
dustan delight  in. 

In  those  days,  1891,  the  Sharada  Sadan  was  in 
rented  quarters,  but  on  July  26  of  that  year  the  beau- 
tiful block  of  buildings  in  which  it  now  is  was  dedi- 
cated to  the  noble  work  of  rescuing  and  educating 
Hindu  widows.  At  the  opening  of  the  new  premises 
there  were  forty  inmates  of  the  home.  Of  these  a 
goodly  number  were  orthodox  Hindus,  keeping  caste- 
rules  and  observances.  The  cooking  arrangements 
were  made  so  as  to  accommodate  those  who  clung  to 
the  Hindu  religion  and  observed  its  forms.  Entire 
freedom  in  religious  matters  was  accorded  to  all.  The 
school  and  home  for  widows  was  not  to  be  a  mission 
school,  as  by  making  it  so  Ramabai  knew  she  would 
be  shutting  out  some,  or  rather  most,  of  the  very  class 
she  wished  to  help.  One  of  the  rules  to  which  she 
rigidly  adhered  was  that  lecturers  on  various  topics 
were  to  say  nothing  irreverent  or  slighting  of  any  re- 
ligion or  sacred  custom. 

This  liberality  led  many  Christian  people  and  even 


CHILD-WIDOWS  81 

missionaries  to  doubt  Ramabai's  Christianity,  as  they 
could  not  understand  her  motives.  She  left  all  free. 
The  Bible,  the  Hindu  Shastras  and  the  Mohammedan 
Koran  were  all  accessible  in  the  library;  yet  at  the 
same  time  no  symbols  of  idol-worship  were  allowed 
in  the  school  or  on  the  premises.  At  one  time  her 
advisory  Hindu  committee,  which  has  since  been 
abolished,  urged  her  to  place  a  tulsi  plant  on  the 
front  veranda  to  be  worshiped  by  the  Hindu 
girls.  Sooner  than  submit  to  this  and  other  innova- 
tions, she  was  ready  to  resign  her  position  as  prin- 
cipal of  the  Sharada  Sadan,  the  very  apple  of  her  eye 
and  the  object  for  which  she  lived. 

While  all  were  left  free,  yet  the  strong  personal 
influence  of  "Bai,"  as  the  girls  call  the  Pundita,  won 
many  to  seek  the  same  experience,  they  saw  her  to 
possess,  and  these  seekers  she  lovingly  instructed  in 
Bible  knowledge.  This  again  caused  her  Hindu  friends 
to  misjudge  her  and  accuse  her  of  compelling  the  girls 
to  become  Christians,  so  that  on  both  sides  her  part 
was  a  difficult  one. 

At  one  time  I  remained  in  the  Sharada  Sadan  as  a 
guest  for  two  months  on  account  of  my  child's  ill- 
health,  and  while  there  was  deeply  impressed  with  the 
spirit  pervading  the  home.  Ramabai  was  a  real  mother 
to  the  girls,  and  for  their  failures  and  shortcomings 
felt  all  a  mother's  solicitude.  One  night  I  was  up  with 
my  sick  child  and  went  out  into  the  garden  with  the 
little  one  for  coolness.  While  walking  there  I  saw  on 
the  high,  terraced  roof  of  the  other  house  a  figure  in 
pure  white  pacing  back  and  forth  and  standing  still  at 


82  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

intervals,  and  I  wondered  what  the  sight  could  mean. 
The  next  day  I  learned  from  an  inmate  of  the  home 
that  Rai  had  remained  up  there  in  the  stillness  all  night 
to  pray  for  a  troublesome  girl.  The  strong  faith  and 
devotion  of  this  Indian  sister  is  a  rebuke  to  many  who 
have  known  the  religion  of  Christ  from  infancy.  She 
showed  me  a  small  idol,  which,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one,  she  was  in  the  habit  of  worshiping.  She  was  thor- 
oughly versed  in  the  sacred  books  or  Vedas.  Yet  in 
less  than  twenty-one  years  she  had  attained  to  such  a 
marvelous  Christian  experience  and  been  made  so  use- 
ful in  working  for  others ! 

Her  acceptance  of  the  Christian  religion,  or  rather 
of  Christ  himself,  was  a  gradual  one.  A  personal  let- 
ter, quoted  some  years  ago  in  a  paper  published  in 
India,  shows  very  clearly  the  steps  by  which  she  has 
been  led  along  from  a  philosophic  belief  in  the  Bible, 
as  containing  the  best  religion,  to  a  vital  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ.     These  are  her  words : 

I  simply  believed  that  God  would  save  me  if  I 
repented  of  my  sins ;  that  it  was  to  declare  his  readi- 
ness to  forgive  all  sins  of  those  who  repented  that 
God  sent  Christ  into  this  world.  So  here  I  was,  a 
professed  Christian,  but  not  converted,  as  I  under- 
stand the  word  now.  I  had  repented  and  was  con- 
tinually asking  God  to  forgive  my  sins ;  but  the  great 
burden  remained  on  my  heart,  just  as  it  had  been 
there  before  I  was  baptized.  I  gave  up  reading 
theological  books  and  betook  myself  to  the  Bible.  I 
was  still  going  on  with  my  old  belief,  when  some 
time  ago  it  pleased  God  to  draw  me  nearer  to  him 
by  bringing  a  great  affliction  on  me.  In  this  I  recog- 
nized the  hand  of  the  loving  Father  and  began  more 
and  more  to  cast  all  my  cares  upon  him,  instead  of 
trusting  in   my  own   strength   and  human   friends; 


CHILD-WIDOWS  83 

but  the  difficulties  were  staring  me  in  the  face  just 
as  they  did  the  lawyer  in  the  tenth  chapter  of 
Luke.  One  very  hot  night,  made  hotter  by  the 
struggle  that  was  going  on  within  me,  I  opened  the 
Bible  and  found  this  promise :  "For  a  small  moment 
have  I  forsaken  thee;  but  with  great  mercies  will  I 
gather  thee."  My  soul  began  to  realize  its  utter 
helplessness  and  misery,  the  many  failures  of  best 
intentions  and  resolutions.  I  fully  understood  that 
I  could  not  help  myself,  so  I  set  aside  all  my  doubts 
and  resolved  to  take  the  Lord  at  his  word.  I  sur- 
rendered to  him,  trusting  that  he  would  do  what  was 
right  by  me.  Since  then  a  great  burden  is  taken 
away  from  my  heart  and  almost  all  my  doubts  have 
gone.  The  old  Vedantic  philosophy  had  so  much 
occupied  my  mind  that  there  was  little  room  for  any- 
thing else.  According  to  it,  God  is  a  being  who  has 
neither  sorrow  nor  joy.  The  pure  essence  of  God 
cannot  suffer,  cannot  feel  for  man.  I  had  already 
believed  John  iii:i6,  but  my  difficulty  was  not  re- 
moved. One  night,  as  I  was  returning  home,  it  sud- 
denly dawned  on  me  that  our  God  is  a  God  of  love. 
God  is  love  itself.  He  is  not  the  passive  being  of  the 
Vedanta  who  cannot  feel  for  man.  It  is  therefore 
most  natural  for  God  to  sympathize  with  man  and 
come  to  his  help  in  his  sore  need.  I  feel  very  happy 
over  this,  and  thank  God  with  all  my  heart  that 
he  sent  Jesus  Christ  to  save  me  by  taking  my  sins 
away. 

This  letter,  however,  while  clear  and  beautiful,  does 
not  fully  portray  the  deep  reality  of  Ramabai's  spirit- 
ual life — the  childlike  faith  and  the  robust,  yet  simple 
working  out  of  her  belief  amid  the  perplexities  of  her 
position. 

One  of  her  most  noticeable  traits  is  her  indifference 
to  public  notice  and  applause.  She  goes  on  quietly 
with  her  work  of  rescue  and  love,  seldom  attending 
large  assemblies  or  public  gatherings,  unless  by  so  do- 


84  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

ing  she  can  forward  the  work  she  loves.  At  the  De- 
cennial Conference  of  Missionaries,  held  in  Bombay  in 
1892,  Ramabai  was  announced  to  address  a  large  meet- 
ing. Hundreds  of  missionaries  of  all  denominations 
were  anxious  to  see  and  hear  this  apostle  of  female 
education  and  reform;  but  Ramabai  did  not  come. 
One  of  her  beloved  "girls"  was  taken  very  ill,  and,  like 
a  tender  mother,  she  remained  by  the  bedside.  Many 
very  devoted  missionaries  would  have  left  the  child  in 
the  care  of  a  trustworthy  assistant  and  been  present 
themselves  at  the  meeting  to  give  and  receive  help  and 
inspiration.  One  of  her  children  was  ill ;  she  could  not 
leave.  There  was  no  thought  of  applause  nor  honor; 
only,  the  anxiety  of  a  mother. 

H'er  work  has  now  grown  to  marvelous  propor- 
tions. The  school  for  widows  in  Poona  continues; 
but,  when  the  famine  of  1896-97  desolated  India, 
Ramabai  stretched  forth  her  hands  to  save  three  hun- 
dred women  and  girls.  This  she  accomplished.  She 
herself  had  known  famine  and  had  subsisted  for  days 
upon  leaves  of  trees;  so  her  whole  heart  went  out  to 
rescue  and  to  save.  The  means  were  always  forth- 
coming and  a  settlement  was  started  at  Khedgaon,  a 
small  village  outside  of  Poona.  Here  farming  was 
carried  on  and  the  girls  and  women  were  taught  and 
employed.  Then  came  the  famine  of  1900,  and  the 
numbers  at  Mukti,  as  the  settlement  is  called,  in- 
creased, until  now  Ramabai's  family  of  girls  and 
widows  numbers  nineteen  hundred.  Missionaries 
help  her  in  holding  services,  and  she  has  a  noble  band 
of  workers;  but  her  own  hand  is  on  everything  and 


CHILD-WIDOWS  85 

her  presence  felt  everywhere.  Out  of  this  great  com- 
pany of  homeless  famine  waifs  will  come  teachers, 
wives  of  Christian  men,  and  Christian  nurses  and 
servants. 

Not  less  wonderful  than  her  work  is  her  own  his- 
tory, and,  of  course,  the  two  are  inseparably  united. 
But  for  her  early  training  she  would  have  had  no 
knowledge  of  Sanscrit;  without  it,  she  could  not  have 
obtained  the  position  as  lecturer  and  instructor  in  the 
Calcutta  College,  and  afterwards  in  England  as  pro- 
fessor of  Sanscrit  in  Cheltenham  College,  Oxford.  To 
comprehend  how  Ramabai  has  obtained  the  scholarship 
which  is  hers,  it  is  necessary  to  know  something  of  the 
aspiration  and  thoughts  of  one  of  the  advanced  think- 
ers of  India,  for  such  undoubtedly  was  Ramabai's 
father.  This  man,  Ananta  Shastri,  a  Brahmin  pundit, 
had  in  his  student  days  met  a  very  talented  princess. 
His  astonishment  on  hearing  a  woman  recite  Sanscrit 
poems  made  him  resolve  that  his  little  child-wife  should 
also  become  learned.  To  this  her  parents  were  opposed 
and  he  was  never  able  to  have  his  wish.  After  her 
death  he  met  Ramabai's  mother,  then  a  little  girl  of 
nine.  She  and  her  parents  and  sister  were  on  a  re- 
ligious pilgrimage,  when  they  stopped  at  a  certain  town 
for  a  few  days'  rest.  One  day  the  little  girl's  father 
was  bathing  in  the  sacred  Godaveri,  when  he  saw  a 
fine-looking  man  approaching.  After  the  ablutions 
and  prayers  were  finished  the  father  asked  the  stranger 
his  name  and  from  whence  he  came.  On  learning  his 
caste,  clan  and  condition,  he  offered  him  his  nine-year- 
old  girl  as  a  wife.     The  pundit  saw  the  opportunity  of 


86  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

fulfilling  his  dream  of  having  an  educated  wife  and 
very  gladly  accepted  the  child.  The  next  day  the  mar- 
riage was  concluded  and  the  father  departed  with  a 
light  heart,  knowing  nothing  of  his  son-in-law,  yet 
feeling  that  he  had  done  the  best  possible  for  his  young 
daughter  in  getting  her  properly  married.  She  was 
tenderly  cared  for,  but  when  her  husband  undertook 
her  education,  his  mother  raised  a  perfect  storm  of 
threats  and  pleadings.  He  was  not  to  be  baffled  in  his 
second  attempt,  so  he  took  his  girl-wife  up  into  the 
■Western  Ghats,  on  a  remote  plateau,  and  there,  literally 
in  the  jungle,  he  conducted  the  education  of  the  little 
girl  who  afterwards  became  Ramabai's  mother.  She 
became  proficient  in  the  Vedas  and  in  the  knowledge 
of  Sanscrit.  Ramabai  treasures  still  a  manuscript  book 
from  which  her  mother  taught  her.  When  Ramabai 
was  born,  in  1858,  her  father  was  growing  quite  old 
and  almost  unable  to  teach  the  students  who  flocked  to 
him.  Ramabai's  mother  taught  her  almost  entirely. 
When  Ramabai  was  nine  years  old  the  family  set  out 
on  a  religious  pilgrimage,  as  is  the  custom  among 
many  high-caste  families.  It  was  decided  as  a  special 
favor  to  delay  Ramabai's  marriage  until  she  was  six- 
teen, as  she  was  learning  so  rapidly. 

During  this  pilgrimage  both  parents  died,  and  the 
brother  and  sister  prepared  them  for  burial.  Often 
during  this  time  the  family  was  almost  reduced  to 
starvation.  When  the  parents  died  the  brother  and 
sister  traveled  throughout  India,  advocating  female 
education.  At  Calcutta  her  scholarship  attracted  the 
notice  of  the  pundits  there,  and  she  was  publicly  given 


CHILD-WIDOWS  87 

the  title  of  Pundita  Sarasvati.  Here  she  was  married, 
but  after  a  brief,  though  happy  wedded  life,  became  a 
widow.  This  forcibly  drew  her  attention  to  the  un- 
fortunate class  of  women  and  children  in  India  who 
are  perpetual  widows.  Her  aim  now  was  to  reach 
England  and  America,  in  order  to  secure  a  better  edu- 
cation in  methods  of  teaching,  and,  if  possible,  help 
for  her  enterprise  of  founding  a  home  for  widows.  For 
a  time  she  was  professor  of  Sanscrit  in  Cheltenham 
College,  England.  Here  some  friends  came  forward 
to  help  her,  but  her  scheme  was  not  fairly  launched 
until  she  was  met  by  the  warmth  of  Western  enthusi- 
asm. American  women  received  her  as  an  equal  and 
comrade.  Soon,  all  over  America,  circles  were  formed 
called  "Ramabai  Circles,"  and  an  association  organ- 
ized which  guaranteed  support  for  ten  years,  by  which 
time  Ramabai  hoped  her  own  people  would  awake  to 
the  benefits  of  such  an  institution  and  would  assist  her 
in  educating  young  widows.  Many  Hindus  professed 
themselves  friends  of  the  cause,  but  Ramabai  found 
that  only  among  Christians  was  true  charity  a  reality, 
and,  since  the  dissolution  of  the  association,  such 
friends  have  poured  into  her  hands  the  means  for  car- 
ing for  her  hundreds  of  dependent  wards.  Here,  truly, 
is  a  work  of  faith,  and  she  herself  one  of  India's  chosen 
ones. 

Because  of  her  diffidence,  many  do  not  know  how 
much  ability  she  possesses.  Max  Miiller,  the  eminent 
Sanscrit  scholar,  cites  her  as  having  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  memories  in  the  world — for  a  woman,  the 
most  remarkable.    He  invited  some  of  his  friends,  pro- 


88  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

fessors  in  the  university,  to  meet  her  and  test  her  mem- 
ory, when  she  recited  any  part  of  the  Rig  Veda  or 
Bhagavad-gita  which  they  chose  to  select,  and  she 
could  go  on  until  they  were  tired.  She  knew  by  heart 
an  amount  equal  to  the  contents  of  our  entire  Bible, 
and,  now  that  she  is  a  Christian,  she  studies  the  Bible 
with  the  same  avidity  with  which  she  once  pored  over 
the  ancient  philosophies  of  India.  Those  old  systems 
she  finds  hollow  and  empty,  and  the  few  beautiful 
things  found  in  the  books  are  almost  nowhere  carried 
into  practice. 

In  speaking  of  her  visit  to  Agra*,  she  says : 

I  beg  of  my  Western  sisters  not  to  be  satisfied 
with  looking  on  the  outside  beauty  of  the  grand 
philosophies,  nor  to  be  charmed  with  hearing  the 
long  and  interesting  discourses  of  our  educated  men, 
but  to  open  the  trap-doors  of  the  great  monuments  of 
ancient  Hindu  intellect  and  enter  into  the  dark  cellars 
where  they  will  see  the  real  workings  of  the  philos- 
ophies which  they  admire  so  much.  Let  our  Western 
friends  come  to  India  and  live  right  among  us.  Let 
them  frequently  go  to  the  hundreds  of  sacred  places 
where  countless  pilgrims  throng  yearly.  Let  them  go 
around  Jaganath,  Puri,  Benares,t  Gaya,  Allahabad, 
Muttra,  Brindaban,  Dwarka,  Pandhrapur,  Udipi,  Tir- 
patty  and  such  other  sacred  cities,  the  strongholds 
of  Hinduism  and  seats  of  sacred  learning,  where  the 
Mahatmas  and  Sadhus  dwell,  and  where  the  sublime 
philosophies  are  daily  taught  and  devoutly  followed. 
There  are  thousands  of  priests  and  men  learned  in 
sacred  lore  who  are  the  spiritual  rulers  and  guides 
of  our  people.  They  neglect  and  oppress  the  widows 
and  devour  widows'  houses.     I  have  gone  to  many 


*See  reference  again  in  chapter  on  "Ancient  Oudh. 
fSee  chapter  on  Benares. 


CHILD-WIDOWS  89 

of  the  so-called  sacred  places,  lived  among  the  people 
and  seen  enough  of  those  learned  philosophers  and 
.  possessors  of  superior  Hindu  spirituality  who  oppress 
the  widows  and  trample  the  poor,  ignorant,  low- 
caste  people  under  their  heels.  They  have  deprived 
the  widows  of  their  birthright  to  enjoy  pure  life  and 
lawful  happiness.  They  send  out  hundreds  of  emis- 
saries to  look  for  young  widows  and  bring  them 
by  hundreds  and  thousands  to  the  sacred  cities  to 
rob  them  of  their  money  and  their  virtue.  They  entice 
the  poor,  ignorant  women  to  leave  their  own  homes 
to  live  in  the  kshetras,  or  holy  places,  and  then,  after 
robbing  them  of  their  belongings,  tempt  them  to 
yield  to  their  unholy  desires.  They  shut  the  help- 
less young  widows  into  their  large  mathas,  or  monas- 
teries, sell  or  hire  them  out  to  wicked  men  so  long 
as  they  can  get  money,  and  when  the  poor,  miserable 
slaves  are  no  longer  pleasing  to  their  cruel  masters, 
they  turn  them  out  in  the  streets  to  beg  their  bread,  to 
suffer  the  horrible  consequences  of  sin,  to  carry  the 
burden  of  shame,  and  finally  to  die  the  death  worse 
than  that  of  a  starved  street-dog.  Those  so-called 
sacred  places,  those  veritable  hells  on  earth,  have  be- 
come the  graveyards  of  countless  widows  and  orphans. 
Thousands  upon  thousands  of  young  widows  and 
innocent  children  are  suffering  untold  misery  and 
dying  helpless  every  year  throughout  this  land,  but 
no  philosopher  or  mahatma  has  come  out  boldly  to 
champion  their  cause  and  to  help  them.  The  teachers 
of  false  philosophies  and  lifeless  spiritualities  will  do 
no  good  to  our  people.  Nothing  has  been  done  by 
them  to  protect  the  fatherless  and  judge  the  widows. 
If  anything  has  been  done  by  anybody  at  all,  it  has 
been  done  by  those  people  who  have  come  under  the 
direct   influence  of  Christianity. 

This  eloquent  extract  shows,  not  only  the  inner 
decay  of  Hinduism,  but  the  acuteness  of  Ramabai's 
mind,  as  well  as  her  nobility  of  character  and  her  fear- 
lessness. 


go  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

TO    PANDITA    RAMABAI. 

Did  cry  from  Macedonia  come 
And  find  quick  answer  to  its  needs? 

And  shall  the  ear  be  always  dumb, 
And  never  foot  be  found  to  speed 

To  heavier  sorrow,  greater  care, 

To  India's  widowhood,  that  mourns 

And  sits  in  ashes  of  despair? 

Nay,  God  hath  heard,  and  from  the  skies 

A  gleam  of  hope!     For,  strong  to  save, 
From  out  those  widowed  ranks,  see  rise 

A  noble  soul,  full  strong  and  brave 
To  dare  hard  custom,  and  whose  heart 

Is  daunted  not  by  fear  or  pain. 
Her  faith  looks  up.     She  does  her  part, 

She  feels  she  shall  not  plead  in  vain. 

So  over  seas  to  unknown  lands, 

To  unknown  hearts  she  takes  her  cause, 
Her  cause — to  loose  from  heavy  bands; 

To  free  from  custom's  iron  laws 
A  sisterhood  of  helpless  ones; 

Of  those  whom  grief  alone  had  nursed; 
To  open  Life's  and  Learning's   fount 

To  those  whose  lives  were  thought  accursed. 

And  hearts  were  opened  everywhere  ; 

Were  opened  wide  to  India's  need. 
The  thought  of  childhood's  face  of  care, 

The  thought  of  cheerless  widowhood, 
Found  in  those  hearts  responsive  chime, 

Where  love  of  God  is  linked  with  love 
For  stricken  ones  of  every  clime. 

So  from  the  gifts  of  many  a  friend 
Who  gave  for  needs  so  far  away, 

Has  grown  this  house  which  soon  shall  send 
Into  this  Empire's  gloom  a  ray— 


CHILD-WIDOWS  91 

Nay,  more !— a  beam  of  heavenly  light ! 
And   India's  millions  yet  shall  say : 
"From  out  our  curse,  our  grief,  our  blight, 
Has  come  our  help,  our  hope,  our  stay." 

So  here,  to-day,  with  heart  and  voice, 

We  people  of  such  various  race 
Unite  as  one  to  say:    "Rejoice! 

Rejoice  that  in  this  goodly  place 
We  see  the  fruits  of  toil  and  love! 

Rejoice  that  here  in  learning's  path 
So  many  feet  may  learn  to  tread! 

Rejoice  to  know  the  good  begun 
Shall  still  go  on  when  we  are  dead!" 

Brave  Ramabai,  may  all  things  fair 

And  all  things  pure  be  always  thine! 
Yea,  they  are  thine;  for,  dwelling  where 

Self  and  self-seeking  do  not  come, 
Seeking  the  good  of  others,   balm 

Unto  thine  own  soul  shall  be  given; 
Mother  to  many,  thou  shalt  know 

While  still  on  earth  some  joy  of  Heaven. 
Poona,  July  26,  1892. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
STORIES  OF  LITTLE  GIRLS. 

Fatima's  parents  are  Mohammedans  and  believe  in 
keeping  women  and  girls  like  prisoners.  Fatima's 
mother  can  never  go  out  shopping  as  English  ladies  do, 
never  pay  calls  or  see  the  birds,  the  sunshine  or  the 
flowers.  Day  after  day,  week  after  week  and  year 
after  year  she  stays  in  the  house  or  goes  into  the  little 
back  yard  surrounded  by  a  high  brick  wall.  She  can- 
not even  enjoy  a  drive  in  the  open  air.  When  she  goes 
anywhere  in  the  ox-cart,  which  is  very  seldom,  the 
bamboo  top  of  the  cart  is  covered  with  blankets  and 
she  can  see  very  little  as  she  passes  along.  Fatima, 
until  lately,  knew  very  little  of  her  mother's  sad  life. 
She  ran  about  the  front  veranda  and  on  the  streets  with 
her  brothers  and  had  a  merry  time.  Even  in  India 
children  make  mud-pies  or  rather  chapatties,  and  play 
their  little  games.  So  Fatima  was  merry  and  free  for 
a  short  time,  something  like  the  dear  happy  little  ones 
in  Christian  lands.  But  how  quickly  her  glad  days 
ended!  Her  seventh  birthday  came  and  instead  of  a 
nice  birthday  party  and  pretty  presents  on  that  day, 
poor  Fatima's  sorrows  began.  On  the  morning  of 
that  day  her  strict  Mohammedan  father  said  to  the 
poor  mother:  "Now,  Fatima  is  seven  years  old,  and 
she  must  begin  to  keep  purdah."  This  means  that  she 
must  always  stay  in  the  back  part  of  the  house  or  walk 

92 


STORIES  OF  LITTLE  GIRLS  93 

about  the  bare  little  yard  with  the  high  walls.  She 
can  never  look  out  of  the  front  doors  or  windows, 
never  run  into  the  front  veranda  or  go  and  see  the 
shops  in  the  bazaar  as  she  used  to  do  with  her  brothers. 
A  veritable  prisoner!  Fatima's  mother  cried  and 
pleaded  in  vain.  "Oh!  she  is  so  little  yet,"  she  said, 
"don't  keep  her  in  purdah  so  soon.  She  will  almost 
forget  how  the  flowers  and  trees  look  by  the  time  she 
grows  up.    Besides,  she  will  forget  and  run  out." 

Then  the  father  flew  into  a  great  rage  and  said :  "It 
is  better  never  to  let  a  woman  out  of  the  house !  The 
Koran  says  that  the  best  kind  of  women  are  those  who 
never  remember  seeing  any  man  but  their  own  hus- 
bands and  sons,  and  the  next  best  those  who  have  only 
seen  near  relatives.  You  would  like  our  daughter  to 
be  totally  bad  and  see  all  the  men  in  town.  She  will 
stay  in  from  this  day  and  you  shall  watch  and  see  that 
she  does  not  go  out."  , 

Of  course,  as  the  mother  had  said,  Fatima  would 
forget  the  cruel  order,  and,  seeing  her  brothers  rush 
out,  she  would  start  too.  Then  her  mother  would  call : 
"Fatima,  Fatima,  remember  the  order,"  and  the  poor 
child  would  sit  down  and  cry  as  if  her  heart  would 
break. 

Her  mother  said  to  me,  "Oh !  I  am  so  glad  that  my 
two  other  little  girls  died.  Here  this  poor  child 
must  sit  down  with  us  women  until  she  is  twelve  years 
old.  Then  she  will  be  married  and  her  husband  will 
keep  her  shut  up  the  rest  of  her  life."  The  mother's 
heart  ached  for  her,  but  she  could  do  nothing  to  help 
poor  little  black-eyed  Fatima. 


94  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Now  here  is  Tara.  Her  name  means  a  "star,"  but 
her  life  is  not  a  bright  one.  She  is  a  Brahmin  child 
and  as  yet  is  allowed  to  run  about  and  play.  But  her 
mind  is  going  to  waste.  When  we  asked  her  father  if 
we  might  teach  her  something,  he  said : 

"Why  teach  her  to  read?  She  must  cook  all  her 
life.  Besides,  Tara  is  engaged  to  be  married.  She  is 
ten  years  old  and  the  order  has  been  given  for  her 
wedding- jewels  to  be  made.  Soon  we  shall  take  her 
to  her  mother-in-law's  house  and  she  will  be  trained 
there.  If  the  child  knew  how  to  read  her  mother-in- 
law  would  think  we  were  making  a  bad  woman  of  her. 
Cows  don't  read  and  women  are  not  as  good  as  cows." 

Soon  little  Tara  will  go  to  Lucknow  to  be  married. 
She  will  never  see  any  happy  school-days,  never  be  that 
bright  and  lovely  being,  a  fair  young  girl  in  her 
parents'  home.  In  India  there  is  an  absence  of  young 
girls  with  their  charming  ways.  Only  children  and 
married  women.  These  two  little  girls  I  know  quite 
well. 

Now  I  will  tell  you  of  a  young  bride  that  my  hus- 
band saw.  She  was  a  girl  of  about  fourteen.  Probab- 
ly she  had  been  given  in  marriage  long  before  and  was 
now  going  to  her  husband's  home. 

The  wedding  procession  looked  very  gay.  The 
horses  were  decked  with  bells,  silver  and  gold  tinsel, 
embroidery  and  bright-red  and  purple  cloths  over  the 
saddle.  My  husband  stopped  to  look  at  the  bridal 
party  passing.  The  groom — alas !  was  forty  or  forty- 
five  years  old  and  was  dressed  very  gaily.  Behind  him 
came  the  little  bride  on  a  pony.     She  wore  beautiful 


STORIES  OF  LITTLE  GIRLS  95 

clothes  and  a  profusion  of  gold  and  silver  jewelry.  But 
the  pretty  face  was  bowed  on  the  pony's  neck,  and, 
above  the  noise  of  the  clashing  cymbals  and  the  various 
other  musical  instruments,  rose  the  heartrending  wail 
of  this  poor,  unwilling  little  bride,  going  to  the  house 
of  the  stern,  silent  man  riding  in  front.  What  happi- 
ness can  be  in  store  for  such  a  home? 

The  fourth  child  I  know  as  well  as  the  first  two — 
Gungi,  a  little  Brahmin  girl.  She  was  married  when  a 
mere  baby  and  at  seven  years  old  became  a  widow. 
She  had  never  seen  the  middle-aged  man  who  gave  her 
parents  a  sum  of  rupees  to  seal  the  marriage  bargain. 
She  did  not  know  what  widow  meant,  but  she  soon 
learned  to  understand  cruelty  and  semi-starvation.  The 
husband's  relatives  housed  and  half-fed  the  poor  baby 
widow.  "How  wicked  she  must  have  been  in  a  former 
life,"  they  would  say.  "Who  knows  ?  She  may  have 
been  a  snake,  and  now  her  sins  have  killed  her  hus- 
band." For  four  years  she  endured  their  wicked  treat- 
ment and  then  she  was  saved  by  a  loving  Christian 
woman,  and  is  now  in  a  happy  home,  free  from  cruel 
blows  and  cruel  words.  When  in  this  home  for  little 
more  than  a  year,  she  composed  a  poem  about  her  lot 
while  still  a  widow.  This  little  poem  I  have  translated 
into  English  as  literally  as  I  could.     Here  it  is : 

SONG   OF    THE    HINDU    WIDOW. 

Come,  oh  come,  God,  my  only  friend, 

My   heart  is  heavy  within  me; 
None  to  my  sorrow  an  ear  will  lend, 

I  am  a  widow!     Oh,  set  me  free! 


96  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Life's  path  I've  trod  but  a  little  way, 
But  my  load  is  too  heavy  to  bear; 

The  light  of  gladness  has  fled  away, 
And  wet  with  tears  the  garments  I  wear. 

I'm  a  little  child,   yet  none  will  save. 

When  five  years  old  betrothed  to  age, 
To  age  with  one  foot  touching  the  grave, 

Yet  when  he  dies,  the  family  rage. 

The  family  storm  and  curse  and  swear 
The  little  wife  has  caused  his  death! 

How  shall  I  tell  how  widows  fare? 
O  God,  I  have  not  power  nor  breath. 

Sold  into  bondage,  a  helpless  slave! 

One  hundred  rupees !    The  paltry  sum. 
My  parents  took,  the  old  man  gave, 

And  I  was  his,  what'er  might  come ! 

And  oh!  the  sorrows  when  he  died! 

The  blows  and  words  as  hard  as  blows, 
E'en  red-hot  iron  their  hands  applied; 

The  scars  my  injured  body  shows. 

If  we  commit  through  youth  or  fear, 
The  smallest  fault,  we  plead  in  vain ; 

We  know  full  well  a  storm  is  near 
And  on  our  backs  sticks  fall  like  rain. 

And  bad  words  thunder  in  our  ears. 

My  feet  the  widow's  thorny  way 
Had  found  when  only  seven  years 

Of  my  short  life  had  passed  away. 

When  but  eleven,  from  my  head 

They  shaved  the  soft,  dark  locks  of  hair. 

They  counted  me  as  with  the  dead; 
The  dead !    I  wish  that  I  were  there. 


STORIES  OF  LITTLE  GIRLS  97, 

Yes,  with  the  dead  I  long  to  be. 

There,  surely,  I'll  find  rest  and  peace. 
Come,  oh  my  God!  and  set  me  free; 

In  death's  cold  arms  give  me  release. 

The  story  of  four  little  girls — the  little  Moham- 
medan prisoner,  the  ignorant  little  betrothed  Brahmin, 
the  weeping  bride  and  the  desolate  baby  widow!  As 
your  hearts  yearn  for  them  remember  there  are  many 
Fatimas  behind  the  purdah;  many  ignorant  betrothed 
children  like  Tara;  many  weeping  brides  and  more 
than  twenty-two  million  widows  in  India ! 

RUNABAI. 

Like  all  girls  of  the  better  classes,  or  higher  castes 
in  India,  little  Runabai  was  married  when  but  a  child. 
In  these  marriages  the  parents  make  all  the  arrange- 
ments, and  very  often  the  little  girl  or  boy  does  not 
even  know  what  is  being  done.  There  are  great  cere- 
monies which  mean  that  the  children  are  promised  to 
each  other  in  marriage  when  they  are  grown  up.  One 
little  girl,  who  was  a  relative  of  Runabai's,  was  married 
when  she  was  in  her  cradle.  The  costly  saris,  or  wed- 
ding-clothes, were  hung  around  the  sides  of  the  cradle 
where  the  little  baby  was  sleeping  and  jewels  were 
placed  around  her  tiny,  unconscious  face.  After  the 
ceremonies  were  over  these  gifts  were  laid  aside  for  the 
little  bride  when  she  should  be  old  enough  to  go  to  the 
new  home. 

Runabai's  marriage  was  similar  to  this.  Little  did 
she  realize  as  she  was  toddling  about  the  beautiful 
rooms  of  her  father's  bungalow  that  her  whole  life  was 
determined  for  her.     The  bungalow,  as  fine  houses  are 


98  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

called  in  India,  was  a  very  nice  one,  and  lovely  plants 
adorned  the  verandas  and  compound.  All  about  were 
signs  of  comfort  and  luxury.  Her  parents  loved  her, 
although  they  were  very  sorry  that  she  was  not  a  boy. 
People  in  India  are  always  sorry  to  have  little  girls 
and  often  they  will  try  to  hide  the  fact. 

One  day  a  missionary  was  sitting  and  talking  in  the 
home  of  a  Hindu  gentleman.  During  the  conversation 
the  missionary  asked,  "How  many  children  have  you  ?" 
"Three,"  the  gentleman  replied,  and  he  called  in  and 
showed  his  visitor  the  three  fine  little  boys  of  whom 
he  was  so  proud.  A  short  time  after  this  a  pretty, 
bright-eyed  little  girl  came  into  the  room  and  climbed 
upon  the  knee  of  the  gentleman.  "And  who  is  this?" 
asked  the  missionary.  "My  daughter,"  replied  the  Hin- 
du in  evident  vexation,  and  he  would  say  no  more. 

But  our  little  Runabai  was  an  affectionate  child 
and,  while  in  her  own  home,  she  did  not  realize  that 
she  was  not  welcome.  A  few  years  of  happiness  were 
soon  over;  for  when  she  was  only  eleven  years  of  age 
the  parents  of  her  boy-husband,  whom  she  had  never 
seen  and  of  whom  she  knew  nothing,  sent  for  her. 
They  wished  to  train  her  up  properly  for  their  son. 
This  is  the  usual  fate  of  Hindu  girls — to  be  torn  from 
their  mothers  and  given  over  to  the  care  of  strangers. 
Little  appreciated  in  her  own  family,  you  can  imagine 
the  very  sad  lot  a  child  must  have  among  those  who 
care  very  much  less  for  her  than  her  parents  do.  The 
least  fault  is  severely  corrected  for  fear  her  sins  may 
cause  the  death  of  the  precious  and  idolized  son  of  the 
family. 


STORIES  OF  LITTLE  GIRLS  99 

When  Runabai  was  sent  for,  her  father  bought  her 
many  rich  saris  or  garments  and  fine  jewels  and  sent 
her  away  with  twelve  hand-maidens  who  were  to  wait 
upon  her  in  the  wealthy  home  of  her  husband.  But 
alas !  for  some  reason  the  little  wife  failed  to  please  her 
new  relatives.  Her  maids  were  taken  from  her  almost 
immediately,  and  she  herself  was  compelled  to  work 
much  too  hard  for  her  years.  They  put  away  the  nice 
silk  and  muslin  saris  and  most  of  her  pretty  bracelets 
and  other  jewelry.  Nothing  the  child  did  seemed  to 
please  anyone  in  the  family,  and  her  life  grew  harder 
and  harder.  It  appeared  as  though  they  wished  to  get 
rid  of  her  and  so  be  able  to  procure  another  wife  for 
the  son. 

Before  a  year  had  gone  by  her  food  was  limited  to 
one  meal  a  day  and  that  only  of  rice  and  chillies  (red 
peppers).  She  became  very  thin  and  looked  like  a 
shadow  of  the  bright  little  girl  who  came  so  gaily  to 
this  home  so  short  a  time  before. 

One  sad  day,  as  she  was  cleaning  the  house,  she  saw 
some  bread  on  a  table.  Her  hunger  was  even  greater 
than  her  fear,  and,  snatching  up  a  piece,  she  ran  off  to 
eat  it.  Her  cruel  mother-in-law  saw  her,  and,  picking 
up  a  stick,  ran  after  the  poor  girl.  She  took  the  bread 
from  the  trembling  fingers  and  pushed  it  down  poor 
Runabai's  throat  with  the  stick.  The  suffering  of  the 
child  was  terrible.  When  she  next  visited  her  own 
father's  house,  she  begged  not  to  be  sent  back  any  more 
to  be  so  cruelly  treated.  "But  oh !  the  disgrace  to  our 
family !"  the  father  said. 


ioo  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

"No,  go  back,  dear  Runabai,  we  weep  for  you  and 
our  hearts  are  pained  over  your  sad  lot.  When  we  sit 
down  to  our  good  food,  we  shed  tears  as  we  think  of 
our  poor,  starving  Runabai.  But  what  can  we  do? 
If  we  keep  you  here  our  caste  will  be  broken  and  the 
gods  will  be  displeased.  Go  back,  and  if  you  die,  it 
will  be  honorable."  So  the  little  martyr  to  caste  and 
false  religion  went  back  and  in  two  months  more  was 
dead. 

Do  not  think  this  is  an  imaginary  tale.  All  the 
facts  were  given  me  by  an  educated  Christian  woman 
of  India.  I  myself  have  known  similar  acts  of  cruelty, 
even  to  branding  with  a  hot  iron.  The  real  selfishness 
and  cruelty  of  heathenism  can  scarcely  be  fathomed. 
Even  the  kinder  people  tolerate  things  like  these  with- 
out raising  a  protest.  The  very  love  lavished  on  some 
has  its  real  root  in  selfishness.  In  Christian  lands 
there  is  a  little  couplet  showing  how  very  near  to  the 
parents'  heart  is  the  loving  daughter.    It  runs : 

A  son  is  a  son,  till  he  gets  him  a  .wife ; 

A  daughter's  a  daughter  the  whole  of  her  life. 

This  might  be  changed  in  India  to— 

A  daughter  is  a  daughter  until  sold  for  a  wife, 
But  a  son  will  support  us  the  whole  of  our  life. 

For  it  is  this  consideration  essentially  that  gives  the 
value  to  sons.  They  will,  according  to  custom,  feed 
and  care  for  the  parents.  How  often  this  merciful 
usage  is  disregarded  it  is  impossible  to  say,  for  many  a 
case  of  neglect  and  even  cruelty  to  old  and  feeble  par- 
ents has  come  under  our  own  observation.    The  rule, 


STORIES  OF  LITTLE  GIRLS  101 

however,  is  for  sons  to  shelter  and  feed  the  aged  par- 
ents. The  belief  about  funeral  obsequies  also  makes 
sons  to  be  desired,  for  it  is  only  they  who  can  perform 
these  duties  for  the  father.  So  anxious  are  the  par- 
ents for  their  sons  also  to  have  sons  that  it  is  known 
that  they  will  sometimes  try  to  get  an  unwelcome  or 
barren  wife  out  of  the  way  so  that  they  can  choose  a 
better  one  for  the  son.  This  may  have  been  the  motive 
in  Runabai's  case. 

ONE  LITTLE  WIDOW. 

Seven  years  a  widow  and  then  only  eleven  years 
old !  Widowed  at  four  years  of  age !  How  incredible 
such  a  thing  sounds,  and  yet  we  know  there  is  a  land 
where  little  children  are  made  widows  before  they  even 
know  the  right  hand  from  the  left.  In  Christian  lands 
a  widow's  sad  lot  is  softened  by  sympathy  of  friends, 
the  sparkle  and  joy  of  existence  may  be  gone,  but  there 
is  much  to  live  for  and  a  useful  life  is  still  before  even 
a  young  woman.  But  the  shadow — nay,  the  curse  of 
widowhood  has  hung  over  little  Sita  ever  since  she 
remembered  anything.  When  suffering  neglect  and 
cruelty,  the  little  brown  girl  often  wondered  why  other 
little  girls  living  near  her  had  such  happy,  merry 
times,  while  she  knew  only  drudgery  and  ill-treatment 
from  morning  until  night. 

One  day,  when  six  of  these  weary  years  had  passed! 
and  Sita  was  then  ten  years  of  age,  she  found  out  what 
widow  meant.  Then,  added  to  the  cruelties  she  al- 
ready endured,  was  added  the  terror  of  woes  to  come. 
The  day  on  which  this  knowledge  came  to  her  she 


102  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

had  gone,  as  usual,  in  her  tattered  garments  and  with 
three  large  brass  water-pots  on  her  head,  to  the  great 
open  well  from  which  she  drew  the  daily  supply  of 
water  for  a  family  of  nine  people.  She  was  so  tired 
and  her  frail  little  back  ached  so  that  she  sat  down  on  a 
huge  stone  to  rest  a  minute  before  letting  down  one  of 
the  many  buckets  which  all  day  long  were  going  up 
and  down  in  obedience  to  the  many  demands  for  water. 
As  she  sat  there  with  her  bare,  olive-skinned  arms  and 
feet  shining  in  the  warm  sun  and  resting  her  weary 
head  on  one  thin  little  hand,  she  was  a  picture  of  child- 
ish woe.  Her  faded  old  sari  had  fallen  back  from  her 
head,  disclosing  the  bare  little  scalp,  for  in  token  of 
the  deep  disgrace  of  widowhood  the  soft,  dark  tresses 
of  hair  had  been  shaved  off  and  the  hot  sun  beat  down 
en  the  small,  naked  head.  Many  sorrows  had  fallen 
on  the  childish  heart,  but  Sita  was  still  a  child.  Her 
heart  yearned  for  companionship  and  love.  Many 
Brahmin  servants  were  drawing  water  near  her,  sing- 
ing little  bhajans,  or  songs,  and  looking  quite  bright 
and  happy  in  their  gay-colored  cotton  saris.  A  woman, 
poor,  so  that  she  must  draw  her  own  drinking-water, 
but'  a  Brahmin,  came  near  to  Sita  and  the  child  looked 
up  and  appealed  to  her  for  help : 

"Will  you  not  draw  a  little  water  for  me?  I  feel 
tired  and  ill,  and  the  well  is  very  deep." 

The  woman  turned  angrily  and  uttered,  in  a  scath- 
ing tone,  the  word  "Widow!"  Then  she  burst  out: 
"Curse  you,  how  dare  you  come  between  me  and  the 
glorious  sun?    Your  shadow  has  fallen  upon  me  and 


STORIES  OF  LITTLE  GIRLS  103 

I'll  have  to  take  the  bath  of  purification  before  I  can 
eat  food !  Curse  you,  stand  aside !" 

Poor  Sita  stands  bewildered.  She  has  never  asked 
help  before  of  anyone.  Too  crushed  and  stupefied  to 
realize  her  forlorn  condition,  she  has  only  existed  and 
gone  through  the  drudgery  with  scarce  a  gentle  word 
from  anyone.  This  abuse  seems  to  arouse  a  little 
curiosity  in  the  child,  but  she  does  not  answer  the 
woman.  Tears  course  down  her  cheeks.  Something 
akin  to  pity  makes  the  woman  pause,  and,  halting  at  a 
safe  distance  from  Sita's  shadow,  she  continues  to  talk 
to  her  in  a  milder  tone.  She  is  thinking,  perhaps,  of 
two  soft-eyed  little  daughters,  who  are  very  dear  to  this 
proud  woman's  heart,  though  she  mourned  bitterly  at 
the  time  of  their  birth,  because  the  gods  denied  her 
sons. 

Looking  again  at  Sita,  she  says:  "Why  should  I 
help  you,  when  the  gods  have  cursed  you?  See,  you 
are  a  widow." 

Then,  in  answer  to  Sita's  vacant  gaze  she  continues : 

"Don't  you  understand?  Didn't  you  have  a  hus- 
band once  ?" 

"Yes,  I  think  so,"  Sita  answered;  "that  old,  bad 
man  who  used  to  shake  me  and  tell  me  to  grow  up 
quickly  and  work  for  him.  Perhaps  he  was  my  hus- 
band. When  he  died  they  said  I  killed  him,  but  I  did 
not.  I  was  glad  he  was  dead,  though,"  said  the  sad 
little  thing. 

"So  you  call  him  bad  ?"  the  woman  said.  "Ah  I  no 
wonder  the  gods  hate  you.    No  doubt  you  were  very 


104  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

wicked  ages  ago  and  so  now  you  are  made  a  widow. 
By  and  by  you  will  be  a  snake  or  a  toad,"  and,  gather- 
ing up  her  water-pots,  the  woman  went  away. 

The  slender,  ill-fed  little  frame  gathered  itself  up 
and  the  child  hurriedly  filled  the  brass  vessels,  knowing 
that  abuse  awaited  her  late  return.  Putting  a  small 
bundle  of  cloth  on  her  head,  she  raised  the  huge  jars 
to  their  place  and  hastened  to  her  house,  since  a  home 
she  never  knew.  The  sister-in-law  met  the  little  thing 
with  violent  abuse  and  bade  her  prepare  the  morning 
meal  quickly.  The  child  was  ill  and  nearly  fell  with 
fatigue. 

"I'll  show  you  how  to  wake  up,"  the  woman  cried, 
and  seizing  a  hot  poker  she  laid  it  on  the  arms  and 
hands  of  the  child.*  Screaming  with  pain,  the  poor 
creature  worked  on,  trembling  if  the  sister-in-law  even 
looked  at  her. 

This  was  one  day.  Each  of  the  seven  lengthened 
years  contained  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  similar 
days,  save  that  now  they  were  growing  worse.  The 
last  year  the  child's  head  had  been  shaved.  When  that 
has  been  done,  but  one  meal  a  day  is  permitted  the 
widow,  no  matter  how  hard  she  may  work.  Most  of 
the  little  girls  who  saw  Sita  would  run  from  her,  fear- 
ing pollution.  But  there  was  one  little  girl,  who,  like 
a  gleam  of  sunshine,  shone  on  Sita  whenever  she  saw 
her.  One  day  after  the  woman  at  the  well  had  abused 
the  young  widow,  Sita  found  a  chance  to  tell  Tungi 


*I  have  known  personally  several  cases  of  similar  brand- 
ing, with  a  hot  iron,  for  trivial  faults. 


STORIES  Ob   LITTLE  GIRLS  105 

about  it.  Tungi's  answer  comforted  the  forlorn  child 
somewhat. 

"No,"  Tungi  said,  "there  is  a  better  God  than  that. 
Our  people  do  not  know  about  him,  and  that  is  why  I 
am  not  allowed  to  talk  with  you.  I  am  married  and 
my  husband  lives  in  a  distant  city.  If  I  speak  to  you, 
they  believe  he  will  die.  But  in  the  school  where  I 
go,  many  do  not  believe  these  things." 

"How  can  you  go  to  school  ?  My  sister-in-law  says 
that  only  bad  women  learn  to  read,"  Sita  answered. 

"So  my  mother  used  to  think,"  said  Tungi ;  "but  my 
husband  is  in  school  and  he  has  sent  word  that  I  shall 
go  also  until  he  calls  for  me  to  come  to  his  home. 
Then  he  will  have  a  wife  who  can  understand  when  he 
talks  about  his  books.  He  says  the  English  have 
happy  families  and  it  is  this  which  makes  them  so. 
The  wives  know  books  and  how  to  sing  and  how  to 
make  the  house  pleasant.  My  mother  says  it  is  all 
very  bad,  but  he  is  my  husband  and  so  I  must  go  to  the 
school.  I  am  very  glad,  for  it  is  very  pleasant  there, 
the  lessons  and  all,  but  most  of  all  the  singing." 

So  the  little  bright-eyed  Brahmin  wife  chatted 
away,  as  gay  as  a  bird.  The  fount  of  knowledge  was 
opened  to  her — the  beaming  eye,  the  elastic  figure  and 
the  individuality  of  her  Western  sisters  were  becoming 
hers. 

None  of  these  things  seemed  for  Sita.  After  Tungi 
went  to  school  the  little  shaven-headed  child,  subsist- 
ing on  one  poor  meal  a  day,  went  about  sad  and  lonely 
for  another  weary  nine  months.    When  she  again  saw 


106  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

the  bright  face  of  her  little  friend,  her  condition  had 
grown  worse.  Her  neck  and  arms  were  full  of  scars 
where  bits  of  flesh  had  been  pinched  out  in  the  vindic- 
tive rage  of  her  relatives,  who  believed  the  child  guilty 
of  her  husband's  death.  Brutality  growing  with  use 
had  made  them  callous  to  the  sufferings  of  the  little 
being  in  their  power.  No  one  who  cared  knew  of  the 
pangs  of  hunger,  the  unkind  and  violent  words  and  the 
threats  of  future  punishments.  Once  or  twice  she  had 
looked  down  into  the  cool  depths  of  the  well  and  won- 
dered how  quickly  she  could  die.  Only  the  terror  of 
punishment  after  death  kept  this  baby-widow  from 
suicide.  She  had  heard  many  things  lately,  and  she 
knew  of  a  young  and  lovely  wife  near  by  who  had  be- 
come a  widow,  lost  her  little  son  and,  unable  to  endure 
the  cruelties  and  her  wounded  pride,  had  stilled  them 
all  beneath  the  quiet  waters  of  the  well.  Another 
widow,  too,  Sita  had  grown  to  know — an  old  woman, 
bent  and  wrinkled,  neglected,  care-worn  and  toiling, 
who  was  a  terror  to  Sita  because  of  what  she  fore- 
shadowed to  the  child. 

One  day  as  Sita  was  weeping  by  the  gateway  of 
Tungi's  home,  the  little  child-wife  told  the  child-widow 
of  a  safe  refuge  for  such  as  she,  where  neither  ignor- 
ance nor  poverty  could  exclude  her — a  home  under  the 
loving  care  of  one  who  knew  the  widow's  curse.  After 
many  difficulties  Sita  found  this  shelter.  Here  she  for- 
got her  widowhood  and  found  her  childhood  and  girl- 
hood. Here,  in  the  beautiful  garden,  or  at  her  les- 
sons, helping  with  cooking,  or  leaning  lovingly  on  the 


STORIES  OF  LITTLE  GIRLS  107 

arm  of  "Bai's"  chair,  the  blessed  genius  of  the  home, 
she  passed  away  many  sweet  and  useful  years.  By 
and  by  Sita  found  the  greatest  joy  in  love — higher  and 
better  than  human  love  can  ever  be.  Later,  when  a 
beautiful  young  womanhood  had  crowned  her,  she 
was  sought  by  an  earnest,  enlightened  young  Chris- 
tian as  his  wife. 

Many  of  the  millions  of  child-widows  never  find 
release  from  the  bonds  of  cruel  custom  and  false  re- 
ligion. In  Hinduism  there  is  no  hope  for  the  accursed 
widow. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

UP  COUNTRY. 

Bombay  people  always  speak  cf  the  stations  north 
on  the  G.  I.  P.  Railway  as  up-country,  or  Moiussil 
stations.  The  merchants  call  their  patrons  from  the 
same  region  up-country,  or  Mofussil  customers.  Some 
of  these  places  are  beautiful  rural  villages  and  many 
are  large  cities,  like  Jubbulpore,  Allahabad  and  Luck- 
now.  Even  in  the  large  cities  you  will  find  beautiful 
drives  and  most  of  the  houses  are  surrounded  by  pleas- 
ant gardens  and  some  by  extensive  grounds,  called 
compounds.  In  the  cool  season  tourists  find  these 
places  delightful,  and  are  often  quite  at  a  loss  to  un- 
derstand why  it  is  considered  a  cross  to  live  in  India. 
If  they  would  prolong  their  stay  through  April,  May, 
June  and  July,  they  would  be  enlightened.  While  in 
Bombay,  Madras  or  Calcutta  you  never  have  the  in- 
vigorating cool  weather  that  we  enjoy  in  Central  and 
Northern  India,  yet  at  the  same  time  you  do  not  suffer 
from  the  scorching  heat  and  hot  winds  that  are  the 
other  extreme  in  the  up-country  stations.  November, 
December,  January  and  February,  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  Central  Provinces  and  in  North  India,  are  sim- 
ply delightful  months.  Sometimes  we  even  have  a 
white  frost  to  remind  us  of  the  homeland.  During 
January  the  malts,  or  gardeners,  try  to  keep  a  brush- 
fire  burning  in  the  gardens,  for  there  being  little  or  no 

108 


UP  COUNTRY  109 

wind,  the  smoke  hangs  low  over  the  vegetables  and 
fruits  and  protects  them  from  danger  of  frost. 

In  the  smaller  up-country  places  the  society  consists 
of  a  few  English  officials  and  the  missionaries.  In 
some  cities  there  is  a  large  number  of  Europeans — as 
in  Jubbulpore.  The  European  community  forms  a 
town  by  itself,  quite  separate  from  the  native  city.  In 
a  number  of  stations  there  are  huge  barracks  for  the 
English  soldiers,  who  are  so  plentifully  scattered  over 
India.  A  few  missionaries  are  in  very  lonely  spots, 
where  often  they  do  not  see  a  white  face  for  months  at 
a  time.  Others  are  in  stations  where  they  have  no 
social  enjoyments  or  privileges,  even  though  there 
may  be  English  officials  there.  The  majority,  how- 
ever, have  some  society  and,  in  most  cases,  the  English 
officials  are  very  cordial  with  American  as  well  as  with 
English  missionaries  and  help  in  no  small  degree 
to  dispel  the  loneliness  of  the  quiet  country  life.  The 
work,  however,  often  makes  even  these  opportunities 
unavailable.  Very  few  of  the  up-country  mission- 
aries can  by  any  possibility  secure  more  than  one  even- 
ing in  a  week  to  be  given  to  social  or  family  inter- 
course. There  is  the  bazaar-preaching  at  about  half- 
past  four  in  the  afternoon,  which  comes  two  or  three 
times  a  week,  and  the  mohulla  preaching,  which  is 
later,  to  meet  the  laboring  people,  who  are  not  at  home 
until  late  at  night,  besides  meetings  for  the  native 
Christians  on  other  evenings.  During  the  cold  season 
most  missionaries  live  in  tents,  traveling  from  village 
to  village  preaching  the  gospel. 


no  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Many  of  them  stay  out  until  April,  when  the  awful 
heat  drives  them  into  bungalows,  as  European  dwell- 
ings are  called.  These  houses  are  built  to  exclude  the 
heat  and  have  very  thick  walls,  very  often  built  of  mud 
and  sun-dried  bricks.  Where  the  heat  is  greatest, 
thatched  roofs  are  common.  Although  very  comfort- 
able during  the  hot  season,  these  are  anything  but 
handsome,  making  the  house  look  like  huge  straw  bee- 
hives, similar  to  those  seen  in  old-fashioned  pictures. 
By  8  o'clock,  or  earlier,  in  the  morning,  the  house  is  all 
tightly  closed,  except  those  doors  which  are  furnished 
with  "kuss-kuss"  chicks.  These  chicks  are  really  huge 
outside  doors  made  of  a  root  called  "kuss-kuss,"  which 
is  fragrant  when  moist.  Coolie  women  are  employed 
to  pour  water  upon  them,  so  that  air  entering  the  house 
through  the  kuss-kuss  will  cool  the  atmosphere  inside. 
When  it  is  1140  F.  outside,  these  chicks  reduce  the 
temperature  immediately  in  front  of  the  chicks  to  86°  F., 
which  is  endurable.  In  places  where  there  is  very  little 
wind  a  machine  called  a  thermantidote  is  used.  This  is 
a  fan-like  device  enclosed  in  such  a  way  that  all  the 
breeze  produced  by  turning  a  crank  is  thrown  upon  and 
through  the  kuss-kuss  chick,  thereby  causing  more 
evaporation  of  the  moisture  and  a  corresponding  re- 
duction of  the  temperature  inside.  In  our  study  we 
had  a  temperature  of  82 °,  while  outside  the  thermom- 
eter, in  the  shade,  stood  at  1140. 

Now  comes  one  of  the  sorest  trials  of  the  mission- 
ary's life.  Not  endurance  of  the  heat  or  one's  own 
health  failing  can  compare  with  the  sorrow  of  seeing 
one's  little  ones  droop  and  fade.     Day  after  day  the 


1 

W"                            \                         '      '''-^SKtBm%^._ . .w^.  *  * 

UP  COUNTRY  in 

huge  punkahs  (ceiling  fans)  swing  back  and  forth 
and,  in  the  darkened  rooms,  the  children  play,  growing 
paler  and  paler.  In  the  very  early  mornings  and  in 
the  evenings  they  go  out  for  a  drive  in  the  bullock 
tonga  or  other  conveyance  or,  if  older,  for  a  walk ;  but 
one  sees  their  health  and  vigor  diminishing  every  day. 
At  night  all  the  beds  are  carried  out  into  the  com- 
pound and,  if  the  weather  is  clear,  with  the  starry  sky 
for  our  canopy  and  the  beautiful  trees  for  our  walls, 
we  can  sleep  fairly  well.  Some  of  us  get  moon-head- 
aches and  have  to  fasten  umbrellas  to  the  head  of  our 
light  cots  to  keep  off  the  intensely  bright  moonlight 
of  the  tropics.  How  vivid  we  realize  the  expression : 
"The  sun  shall  not  smite  thee  by  day,  nor  the  moon 
by  night." 

So  April  and  May  drag  their  heated  lengths  along 
and — oh !  how  we  sigh  for  the  rains  to  begin.  Then 
the  clouds  come,  sometimes  a  fortnight  before  a  drop 
of  rain  falls.  The  hot,  stifling  clouds  hang  like  smoth- 
ering blankets  over  the  earth,  and  sleep,  even  outdoors, 
is  out  of  the  question.  Many  a  night  I  have  walked 
around  the  house  for  hours  in  a  thin  white  wrapper, 
feeling  as  though  every  breath  would  stifle  me,  and 
utterly  unable  to  sleep  until  quite  tired  out  with  exer- 
cise. Within  the  last  few  years  we  have  erected  a 
framework  on  which  a  punkah  is  swung,  pulled  by  re- 
lays of  coolie  women,  who  sit  far  off  in  the  compound 
at  the  end  of  the  rope. 

You  may  wonder  how  these  women  endure  the 
heat.  They  belong  to  the  millions  of  poor  low-caste 
people  in  India,  and  in  comparison  with  such  work  as 


ii2  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

carrying  bricks  in  the  scorching  sun,  they  find  punkah- 
pulling  for  half  a  night  or  day  in  a  shaded  veranda  an 
easy  task.  We  cannot  remake  all  the  conditions  of 
life  in  India.  We  only  know  in  the  hot  season  that  we 
are  strangers  and  foreigners,  barely  able  to  exist  under 
punkahs,  with  all  other  ameliorations  available.  Many 
missionaries,  however,  come  to  endure  the  heat  fairly 
well  and,  during  the  famine,  when  so  many  were  super- 
intending relief  work,  the  men  were  out  for  hours  in 
the  almost  intolerable  temperature.  Then  the  rains 
begin.  In  many  sections  the  air  does  not  become 
pleasant  for  a  long  time ;  for,  whenever  the  rains  stop, 
it  is  steamy  or,  as  we  say  in  India,  "very  stuffy." 

Now  the  effects  of  the  continued  heat  become  man- 
ifest. Fever  lays  hold  on  the  children.  Days  of  anxi- 
ety follow,  often  terminating  in  bereavement.  To  see 
a  dear  little  one  suffer  because  of  the  climate  is  one  of 
the  heaviest  crosses  of  the  missionary.  We  are  told, 
of  course,  of  the  English  officials  who  come  to  India 
willingly,  but  the  difference  in  salaries,  which  makes 
so  many  other  differences  possible,  is  not  mentioned. 
The  children  can  be  taken  to  the  hills,  ice  is  obtained 
from  some  large  city  and  kuss-kuss  chicks  are  in  all 
the  doors  instead  of  in  one  or  two.  These  comforts 
accompany  the  officers  and  their  families  on  tours,  not 
to  mention  the  frequent  trips  to  England,  which  invig- 
orate the  little  ones. 

Some  parts  of  the  country  are  cultivated  by  means 
of  a  simple  system  of  irrigation  and  the  vegetable  gar- 
dens must  be  watered  all  the  year  round  except  in  the 
three  months  of  the  rainy  season.     One  of  the  discom- 


INDIAN   BUFFALOES   BATHING 


A  HINDU  STREET  SCENE 


UP  COUNTRY  113 

forts  pertaining  to  the  hot  season  and  the  earlier  times 
of  the  rains,  is  the  scarcity  of  fruit  and  vegetables  in  all' 
the  smaller  places.  Without  these  the  liver  will  not 
perform  its  office  in  the  heat,  and  fever  results.  Here 
again  the  difference  in  salary  is  important,  for  with  a 
full  purse  you  can  purchase  from  Bombay,  Calcutta  or 
some  other  large  city  where  fruit  is  obtainable. 

In  the  cold  season  everything  seems  pleasant.  The 
weather  is  delightful.  Guavas  come  in  abundance  from 
Allahabad,  the  place  where  the  finest  ones  grow.  Later, 
the  luscious  Nagpur  oranges  are  to.be  had,  while  the 
merchants  from  Kabul  come  down  with  camel  cara- 
vans and  sell  dried  fruits,  dates,  raisins,  figs,  apricots, 
fresh  nuts,  almonds,  pistachio  nuts,  kaju  nuts  and  wal- 
nuts. At  this  season  vegetables  are  plentiful,  and  good 
beef  can  be  procured.  The  housewives  busy  themselves 
concocting  roselle  jelly,  which  is  made  from  a  flower, 
and  much  guava  jelly  and  guava  cheese,  besides  orange 
marmalade,  lime  pickle,  etc.,  in  preparation  for  the 
dearth  of  the  hot  season.  The  mangoes  come  in  May, 
when  it  is  hot,  but  very  few  that  are  eatable  can  be 
obtained  in  Central  India.  From  these,  when  half- 
ripe,  chutneys  and  preserves  are  prepared. 

The  corunder,  a  fruit  something  like  the  goose- 
berry, ripens  during  the  cold  season.  Many  ladies, 
when  preparing  dainties  or  preserving  fruits  which 
they  do  not  wish  to  trust  to  servants,  cook  over  char- 
coal fires  in  a  queer  little  bucket-shaped  contrivance 
called  a  seegree.  Some  have  a  cook  stove  in  a  shel- 
tered veranda,  and  a  few  are  the  fortunate  possessors 
of  oil-gas  stoves. 


ii4  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

The  cookhouse  is  entirely  away  from  the  house 
proper,  to  prevent  the  heat,  odor  of  cooking  and  smoke 
from  passing  through  the  bungalow.  Almost  every 
door,  outside  and  inside,  is  kept  open,  except  in  the 
hottest  season. 

Six  or  eight  servants  will  do  the  work  usually  done 
by  one  in  England  or  America,  and  that  number  will 
receive  about  the  same  pay  as  the  one  in  the  homeland. 
The  people  are  not  accustomed  to  working  hard,  and 
wages  are  low.  With  proper  oversight  and  care  about 
the  food,  teaching  new  dishes — in  fact,  good  house- 
keeping— you  can  have  the  work  done  fairly  well, 
leaving  the  missionary's  wife  free  to  teach  in  the 
zenanas,  for  correspondence  connected  with  the  work, 
and,  in  many  places  where  there  are  no  schools,  for  the 
instruction  of  her  own  children. 

At  best,  however,  life  in  India  partakes  of  the 
artificial.  The  children  must  be  taken  to  the  hills  in 
the  hot  seasons  if  possible.  The  husband  must  work 
on  alone.  Then,  by  and  by,  when  the  health  and  edu- 
cation of  the  boys  and  girls  demand  it,  comes  the  inev- 
itable separation  of  parents  and  children.  A  settled 
home-life,  such  as  we  know  in  England  and  America, 
cannot  be  maintained  without  many  interruptions.  Yet, 
strangeness  has  its  fascination,  and  many  people  prefer 
living  in  India,  while  in  the  case  of  missionaries  the 
work  for  and  among  the  people  grows  to  be  their  life- 
purpose  and  interest.  The  homeland,  though  en- 
shrined in  memory  with  all  its  dear  associations,  still 
fades  and  fades  away.  The  one  or  two  furloughs 
granted  are  in  reality  furloughs  only,  or  visits,  and 


UP  COUNTRY.  115 

India  becomes  our  home.  We  are  exotics,  it  is  true, 
but  we  have  taken  root.  Here  we  must  live  and  grow, 
howbeit  our  life-span  is  undoubtedly  shortened  and  the 
burden  of  millions  around  us  is  never  lifted  from  our 
hearts. 

INSECT   AND  OTHER   PESTS. 

In  the  large  cities,  especially  on  the  coasts,  insects 
do  not  flourish  as  they  do  in  the  country  places,  par- 
ticularly where  the  heat  is  very  intense  part  of  the  year. 
In  Bombay  the  crow  is  one  of  the  most  annoying  pests, 
although  the  swarms  of  these  black  creatures  are  con- 
sidered great  scavengers.  The  crow  is  everywhere  in 
great  numbers.  In  the  country  hawks  and  kites  are 
very  numerous  and  a  great  menace  to  the  poultry. 

In  many  places  scorpions  are  plentiful,  and  little 
children  are  in  great  danger  from  their  stings.  A  child 
of  a  missionary  died  in  convulsions  in  the  old  bunga- 
low at  Narsinghpur  from  the  sting  of  one  which  was 
found  in  its  cap.  We  ourselves  killed  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  the  first  year  we  lived  in  that  house. 
Its  grass  roof  is  a  fine  shelter  for  them,  as  also  for  rats, 
gophers  and,  worst  of  all,  for  the  destructive  white 
ants.  This  and  many  similar  houses  are  eaten  through 
and  through  by  these  annoying  pests.  The  walls  of 
many  of  the  older  European  buildings  in  India  are 
built  of  sun-dried  brick  and  mud,  but  offer  no  resist- 
ance to  the  attacks  of  these  demucks,  as  the  natives  call 
them.  They  are  as  small  as  ordinary  ants,  but  quite 
white,  while  the  queen  is  as  long  as  a  little  finger. 
Scarcely  anything,  wood,  leather,  cloth,  paper,  is  safe. 
Sometimes  they  build  little  tunnels  of  mud  from  the 


n6  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

wall  to  a  chest  or  cupboard  and,  before  one  is  aware, 
the  contents  are  riddled.  A  case  of  fine  books  may  be 
destroyed  in  a  short  time. 

In  native  houses  of  the  poorer  sort,  the  bedbug 
reigns  and  it  requires  great  care  to  keep  them  out  of 
European  homes,  as  the  native  servants  are  very  apt 
to  carry  them  on  their  clothes.  During  the  rains  a 
variety  of  this  insect  with  wings  may  descend  upon  a 
group  on  the  veranda  and  cause  consternation  and 
flight.  Moths,  crickets  and  silver-fish  are  a  constant 
menace  to  clothing,  but  these  all  fade  into  insignifi- 
cance when  we  have  to  guard  against  snakes.  The 
greater  number  are  of  the  poisonous  sorts — the  cobra, 
whose  sting  will  kill  in  twenty  minutes;  the  garetta, 
Russet's  viper  and  other  species.  In  our  own  house 
and  compound  we  have  killed  twelve,  at  least,  of  these 
deadly  creatures.  One  rainy  season  there  were  four 
deaths  from  snake-bites  inside  of  two  weeks  in  our 
town.  All  through  the  country  thousands  of  native 
people  die  from  this  cause,  their  bare  feet  and  partly 
unclothed  bodies  giving  many  opportunities  for  the 
venomous  sting  to  take  effect. 

Among  the  most  annoying  pests  are  the  packs  of 
jackals  which  howl  around  the  house,  if  it  is  near  the 
woods,  and  which  even  enter  the  limits  of  quite  large 
towns.  The  howling  of  these  beasts  is  simply  hideous 
and  keeps  many  people  awake  for  hours.  There  is  no 
danger  unless  one  of  the  pack  has  hydrophobia,  when 
its  cowardice  is  gone  and  often  a  fine  dog  is  bitten  and 
must  be  shot. 


UP  COUNTRY  117 

Wolves  often  venture  into  towns  and  hyenas  prowl 
around  after  dogs,  cats  or  chickens,  and  sometimes  the 
stillness  of  the  night  is  broken  by  the  far-away  scream 
of  the  cheetah,  or  Indian  leopard. 

Tigers,  of  course,  keep  to  the  jungles.  About  eight 
miles  from  our  place  there  is  a  good  hunting  ground 
for  tigers.  The  officials  go  out  with  beaters — perhaps 
two  hundred  of  them.  These  now  surround  a  given 
tract,  and  then  slowly  advance  toward  a  common  cen- 
ter, beating  pans  and  blowing  horns  to  confuse  the 
tiger.  When  it  reaches  the  open  space  the  hunters, 
concealed  in  trees,  fire  upon  it.  If  only  wounded  it 
becomes  dangerous,  and  many  hunters  are  injured  and 
some  killed  when  they  attempt  to  follow  a  wounded 
tiger. 

Monkeys  are  a  great  annoyance  and  source  of  loss 
to  the  farmer  and  the  gardener.  They  often  descend 
upon  our  premises  in  numbers,  sometimes  a  hundred  at 
a  time.  They  are  driven  away  by  noise,  but  manage  to 
destroy  a  great  deal  in  their  flight  through  the  trees. 
In  driving  into  the  country  herds  of  deer  are  seen 
frequently,  but  these  beautiful  creatures  do  much  dam- 
age to  the  crops.     Game  is  plentiful  everywhere. 

During  the  rainy  season,  when  trees  and  grass  are 
green,  the  country  is  very  beautiful.  We  make  the 
most  possible  of  this  season  and  of  the  short  and  pleas- 
ant winter. 

SOME  TREES  OF  INDIA. 

India's  heritage  of  floral  beauty  lies  in  her  trees. 
There  are  but  few  garden-flowers  peculiar  to  India, 
but  almost  every  tree  is  a  bouquet  of  loveliness  at  some 


n8  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

time  of  the  year,  and  the  succession  makes  the  highway 
a  forest  of  bloom  and  turns  the  jungle  into  a  wonder- 
land park. 

Every  morning,  as  we  drive  to  our  work  or  go 
forth  in  search  of  one  cool  breeze  to  last  during  the 
parching  heat  of  the  day,  our  eyes  are  gladdened  by 
the  sylvan  beauties  about  us,  while  we  breathe  the  air 
filled  with  exquisite  odors  from  millions  of  blossoms. 

The  neem  comes  first.  There  it  stands,  in  its  deli- 
cate green  foliage,  sprinkled  over  with  tiny  white  blos- 
soms like  snowflakes.  The  odor  is  a  fresh,  sweet  scent, 
just  suited  to  the  graceful  appearance  of  the  tree.  This 
is  one  of  the  sacred  trees.  It  was  under  the  neem  that 
suttee,  the  burning  of  child-widows,  used  to  be  cele- 
brated. Beneath  some  of  these  trees  stone  altars  are 
still  to  be  seen,  where  fair  young  lives  went  out  amid 
smoke  and  flame,  while  the  hideous  noise  of  the  tom- 
tom drowned  the  cries  of  the  victim,  often  a  child  in 
years. 

The  lordly  banyan,  covering  an  immense  area,  is 
celebrated  all  over  the  world.  This  tree  is  called  by 
the  natives  the  jungly  anjir,  or  wild  fig. 

The  tamarind  has  a  small,  insignificant  bloom,  but 
the  tree  is  very  lofty  and  its  feathery  green  foliage 
makes  it  a  prominent  object  of  admiration.  Its  ex- 
ceedingly tart  fruit  is  much  prized  for  curries. 

The  jamon,  with  its  tassel-like  blossom,  stretches 
its  long  arms  across  the  roadway  and  diffuses  its  per- 
fume, like  that  of  the  azalea,  far  and  wide.  The  light- 
yellow  and  green  tassels  make  a  great  show. 


UP  COUNTRY  119 

The  peepul  has  no  visible  bloom,  but  its  white  trunk 
and  branches  gleam  through  its  glossy  leaves,  rivaling 
the  birch  in  beauty.  In  size,  the  peepul  far  surpasses 
the  birch.  Under  this  tree  we  see  many  idols.  Often 
the  bark  and  wide-spreading  roots  are  daubed  with 
red,  and  many  stop  to  worship  the  god  of  the  tree. 

The  kautchnor  has  a  large,  white,  lily-like  bloom, 
one  petal  being  of  a  pinkish  purple.  The  flower  comes 
before  the  leaves,  and  rows  of  these  trees,  interspersed 
with  the  fragile,  pale-green  sesum,  hanging  full  of 
yellow-winged  seed,  make  a  pleasing  vista  of  the  high- 
way. 

A  certain  road  near  us  is  lined  on  either  side  for  a 
distance  of  three  miles  with  clumps  of  graceful  bam- 
boo, alternating  with  sesum  and  the  black  stemmed 
babool.  The  effect  is  lovely.  Indeed,  these  yellows, 
blues,  pinks  and  scarlets,  with  the  setting  of  varied 
foliage,  cannot  be  adequately  described. 

During  the  heat  of  April  and  May  the  gold-mohur 
blossoms.  Its  flat,  spreading  branches  are  covered 
with  vivid  red  flowers.  The  common  name  is  "forest- 
on-fire,"  and  really  it  seems  as  though  the  blooms  add 
to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  For  truly  oriental  appearance, 
no  tree  can  excel  the  gold-mohur. 

Among  the  timber  trees  the  babool  and  the  teak 
stand  preeminent.  These  woods  seem  almost  inde- 
structible by  ordinary  wear.  In  the  oldest  Buddhist 
temple  in  South  India  you  can  see  some  teakwood  that 
has  endured  exposure  for  over  twenty  centuries.  This 
temple  is  situated  about  forty  miles  from  Poona  and  is 
known  as  Karli  Cave,  being  a  rock-hewn  structure. 


120  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

The  date  of  the  building  is  placed  as  early  as  300  B. 
C,  and  by  no  authority  later  than  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.  In  the  great  arch  overhead,  cut  in  the 
rock,  there  are  set  wooden  groins  stretching  from  the 
pillars  on  either  side.  The  wood  is  in  a  good  state  of 
preservation,  and  but  few  flaws  can  be  seen  from  the 
rock  floor. 

The  mango  is  one  of  the  handsomest  trees,  compar- 
ing with  the  hardwood  maple  in  shape  and  beauty.  But 
the  mango  never  drops  its  oblong  leaves — and,  whether 
standing  only  in  its  robe  of  green  or  when  covered 
with  countless  yellowish  flowers,  or  bending  beneath 
the  golden  weight  of  the  most  delicious  fruit  in  the 
world,  it  is  always  a  joy  to  the  sight. 

Not  only  in  trees  notable  for  beauty  or  valuable  for 
timber,  but  in  fruit  trees,  also,  is  India  rich.  The 
mango  comes  first  for  excellence  of  fruit.  Then  there 
is  the  tree  which  bears  the  huge  prickly  jack  fruit, 
weighing  from  sixteen  to  twenty  pounds.  This  fruit 
does  not  rank  next  to  the  mango,  but  the  tree  is  shapely 
and  prominent,  while  the  more  excellent  custard-apple 
grows  on  a  small,  scrubby  tree. 

The  good  fruit,  with  the  exception  of  the  mango, 
grows  on  the  less  pretentious  trees.  The  orange, 
pomelo,  fig,  peach,  mulberry  and  papita  are  all  of  small 
size.  There  are  many  other  fruit  trees.  Some  fruits, 
as  the  bher  fruit,  are  very  attractive  to  the  black-faced 
monkeys. 

In  and  out  among  these  trees  winds  the  thread  of 
India's  religion,  tragedy  and  romance.     Nearly  every 


UP  COUNTRY  121 

tree  or  shrub  enters  in  some  way  into  the  daily  life  of 
the  people,  down  even  to  the  adored  tulsi  plant,  found 
in  the  smallest  yard. 

Some  are  prized  for  their  medicinal  properties, 
some  revered  for  their  connection  with  the  history  of 
the  gods,  and  some  for  both  reasons  combined.  This 
is  especially  true  of  the  neem.  Its  bark  and  leaves  are 
used  for  healing,  and  many  religious  rites  are  per- 
formed under  its  branches. 

As  among  heathen  nations  of  Bible  times,  you  may 
find  here  "high  places,"  or  places  of  worship,  under 
every  green  tree. 

Under  these  bright  skies,  beneath  the  protecting 
shadows  of  the  banyan  and  the  velvety  pink  and  green 
of  the  chewulloo,  and  amidst  other  beauties  of  river, 
hill  and  plain,  flourish  ignorance,  superstition  and 
heathen  rites,  proving  that  mountains,  of  themselves, 
do  not  give  birth  to  nobility,  nor  do  scenery  and  ver- 
dure alone  create  poesy.  While  these  groves  may  per- 
haps produce  a  single  poet,  yet  from  them  come  thou- 
sands of  loathsome,  ash-covered  fakirs  and  millions  of 
superstitious  people  who  revere  these  same  fakirs  as 
little  less  than  God. 

Amid  these  lovely  scenes  we  long  to  see  the  men 
and  women  grow  into  stalwart  forms  akin  to  the  physi- 
cal strength  of  their  loved  peepul ;  to  behold  them  put- 
ting on  spiritual  life,  as  the  neem  its  sweetness  and 
purity;  and,  to  carry  the  simile  further,  bringing 
forth  fruit  unto  life  eternal,  like  the  abundance  of  the 
rich  mango  of  their  groves  and  plains. 


122  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 


A  WEEK  ON  THE  NARBUDDA  RIVER. 

Camping  on  the  banks  of  this  river  during  the  Bur- 
man  Fair,  or  Mela,  is  full  of  interest  to  a  foreigner. 

As  I  sit  writing  in  the  tent,  I  wonder  if  more  per- 
fect weather  could  be  found.  There  is  a  cool  breeze 
blowing  and  the  sky  is  bright  and  clear.  Winter  in 
India!  The  time  when  tourists  come  sightseeing,  and 
then  go  back  to  tell  of  the  luxuries  that  Europeans  en- 
joy in  this  favored  land;  of  fresh  peas  for  Christmas 
dinner;  oranges,  pineapples  and  other  fruits  in  abund- 
ance ;  a  perfect  climate,  and  so  on.  In  fact,  even  resi- 
dents forget  the  scarcity  of  good  things  in  April  and 
May ;  the  hot  blasts  as  from  a  furnace,  which  seem  to 
dry  up  the  very  juices  of  the  body,  and  all  the  other 
miseries  of  the  hot  season,  including  scorpions,  centi- 
pedes and  snakes. 

It  is  in  this  favored  cool  season  that  the  great  Mela 
at  Burman  is  held.  Burman  is  a  small  collection  of 
thatched  huts  of  no  consequence  except  for  its  numer- 
ous temples,  its  fine  bathing  ghat,  and  above  all,  its 
situation  on  the  blue  Narbudda,  which  in  sanctity  is 
considered  second  only  to  the  mighty  Ganges.  Here 
thousands  of  pilgrims  come  every  year  to  worship  their 
favorite  god  or  gods,  out  of  the  "gods  many"  which 
are  here  enshrined.  Here  also  come  other  thousands 
to  sell  fruit,  flowers,  grain  for  temple-offerings,  and  all 
sorts  of  foodstuffs,  brassware,  cloth,  jewelry  and 
trinkets.  Often  the  number  reaches  a  lakh  and  a  half, 
or  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand.    This  year,  on  ac- 


UP  COUNTRY  123 

count  of  short  crops,  the  number  of  people  is  smaller, 
probably  about  eighty  thousand.  The  river  bed  at  this 
place  is  very  broad,  and  in  the  rainy  season  is  often 
full.  Now  the  river  occupies  the  center  of  the  bed, 
leaving  a  wide,  sandy  beach  on  one  side  several  hun- 
dred yards  back  from  the  water.  There  the  land  rises 
in  abrupt  cliffs  which  are  adorned  by  small  white  Hindu 
temples.  Along  the  edge  of  this  cliff,  on  the  south  of 
the  river,  are  the  tents  of  the  English  officials  of  the 
district,  out  on  the  Queen's  business,  and  the  more 
modest  outfits  of  the  missionaries,  who  are  on  the 
King's  errand  among  this  multitude.  Scattered  here 
and  there  among  the  trees  are  the  improvised  kitchens 
of  the  various  camps,  presided  over  by  dusky-faced 
cooks,  and  presenting  at  night,  with  the  curling  smoke 
from  the  fires  and  the  flitting  dark  figures,  a  fantas- 
tic picture.  The  Fair  itself  is  on  the  sandy  beach  be- 
low, a  small  part  straggling  over  the  temporary  bridge 
of  bamboo  to  the  other  side  of  the  river  and  extending 
along  the  north  bank  as  far  as  the  ghat. 

This  bamboo  bridge  is  rebuilt  every  year,  after  the 
rains,  and  toll  is  collected  during  the  eight  or  nine 
months  to  pay  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  bridge  and  to 
meet  the  government  tax  of  twelve  thousand  rupees. 
The  ox-carts,  people  and  horses  may  cross  the  bridge, 
but  the  camels  and  elephants  must  wade  the  river  a  lit- 
tle below,  where  it  is  shallow. 

From  the  cliff,  where  we  are  camped,  the  whole 
animated  scene  on  the  sands  can  be  viewed.  The  beau- 
tiful Narbudda  seems  like  two  streams  as  it  flows 
around  a  small  island,  green  with  trees  and  foliage  and 


124  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

crowned  by  a  little  minareted  temple.  The  thousands 
of  pilgrims  on  the  sandy  beach,  clad  in  the  varicolored 
garments  of  the  Orient,  red,  yellow,  purple,  white  and 
blue,  gleaming  in  the  bright  Indian  sun ;  the  long  rows 
of  canvas-covered  shops;  the  booths  made  of  the 
branches  of  trees,  calling  to  mind  the  old  Jewish  feast 
of  tabernacles — all  combine  to  form  a  picturesque  and 
thoroughly  Eastern  scene. 

Just  where  the  stream  unites  below  the  island,  on 
the  north  bank  and  almost  facing  our  cliff,  is  the  mag- 
nificent bathing  ghat,  built  of  dark  stone  and  consist- 
ing of  seventy-three  steps,  each  one  foot  in  height. 
This  open-air  stairway,  over  four  hundred  feet  wide, 
beginning  high  up  on  the  bank  and  descending  beneath 
the  water's  edge,  is  an  imposing  sight.  When  covered 
from  top  to  bottom  with  throngs  of  pilgrims,  swaying 
to  and  fro,  up  and  down,  all  intent  on  worship  and 
praise  and  prayer,  it  is  a  touching  sight  as  well. 

Here  and  there  on  the  stairs  are  wide  platforms. 
On  these  small  stone  houses  are  built,  partitioned  off 
into  cells  and  forming  the  rainy-weather  refuge  of  the 
fakirs,  or  begging  priests. 

On  one  of  the  platforms,  bowing  before  an  image 
too  loathsome  to  describe,  is  a  group  of  noble-looking 
men.  These  are  followed  by  a  detachment  of  the  com- 
moner folk,  forming  the  bulk  of  the  throng.  Near  by 
is  a  group  of  women  surrounding  an  image  of  the 
sacred  bull ;  a  little  farther  on  a  circle  of  dancing-girls, 
singing  their  weird  songs,  which  sound  like  weeping, 
and  the  sadness  of  the  strains  seems  to  tell  of  centuries 
of  oppression  and  darkness. 


UP  COUNTRY  125 

On  either  side  of  the  river,  scattered  up  and  down 
the  banks  and  on  the  little  island,  are  the  various  tem- 
ples dedicated  to  Vishnu,  Siva,  the  indescribable  Ling, 
and  dozens  of  others.  In  and  about  these  temples  and 
on  the  platforms  of  the  ghat,  are  idols  of  all  sorts. 
Some  are  decidedly  indecent  and  give  the  keynote  to 
the  degradation  of  the  people.  A  constant  stream  of 
men  and  women  is  going  up  the  paths  to  the  temples, 
carrying  their  offerings  of  fruit,  flowers,  grain,  san- 
dal-wood, oil  and  butter;  another  stream  cff  people, 
returning  from  their  worship,  is  coming  down. 

Much  that  is  meant  for  gaiety  is  going  on,  amuse- 
ment as  well  as  business  being  combined  with  religion 
in  this  yearly  feast.  Merry-go-rounds  of  primitive  pat- 
tern; side-shows,  where  trained  parrots  and  sparrows 
may  be  seen,  and  street-musicians  with  their  long- 
drawn  strains,  enliven  this  bazaar. 

One  of  the  most  noticeable  features  of  the  Mela  is 
the  swarm  of  fakirs.  Many  of  them  are  dressed  in 
flowing  skirts  and  fancy  head-gear,  others  are  almost 
entirely  naked,  with  their  bodies  smeared  with  the 
ashes  from  burnt  cow  manure,  these  ashes  being  con-* 
sidered  especially  sacred  and  purifying;  some  are  at- 
tired in  the  holy  saffron-hued  garment,  their  faces 
tinted  to  match,  and  wearing  long  strings  of  prayer 
beads  made  from  a  rough  brown  nut;  others  are 
burdened  with  an  enormous  weight  of  chains,  and  all 
are  considered  holy  in  proportion  to  their  condition  of 
filthiness  and  general  hideousness.  These  fakirs  are, 
next  to  some  of  the  idols,  the  most  revolting  sight  to  a 
stranger. 


126  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Business  is  brisk  in  the  hundreds  of  little  shops, 
many  of  which  are  no  larger  than  large  dry-goods  boxes. 
THe  merchant  stands  outside  and  reaches  in  for  what 
the  purchaser  wants.  Others  are  more  spacious,  per- 
haps twelve  by  fifteen  or  twenty  feet.  It  is  easy  to  find 
what  you  wish,  for  at  either  end  of  every  street  is  a 
sign-board  saying,  "Cloth  line,"  "Candy  line,"  "Jew- 
elry row,"  "Fruit  Street,"  and  so  forth.  In  these  tiny 
jewlry  shops  may  be  found  choice  pieces  of  old  coin 
which  would  delight  collectors — the  square  Hyderabad 
silver  rupee,  the  beautiful  gold  mohur  that  was  once 
coined  in  India,  and  many  others — which  here  are  sold 
for  ornaments. 

At  all  times  during  the  fair  the  bathers  may  be 
seen  in  the  water,  or  descending  and  ascending  the 
great  ghat.  But  the  special  time  appointed  for  bathing 
was  on  Sunday  morning  before  sunrise.  Wondering 
whether  any  were  so  devout  as  to  plunge  into  the  water 
at  such  a  time,  I  threw  on  a  woolen  wrapper  and, 
slipping  out  of  the  tent,  stood  on  the  cliff  overlooking 
the  dark  stone  ghat  opposite.  It  was  full  of  people, 
and  hundreds  were  plunging  into  the  stream,  eager  to 
wash  away  their  sins  in  the  sacred  flood,  knowing  not 
of  the  "fountain  opened  for  sin  and  uncleanliness  in 
the  house  of  David."  The  prudent  ones  waited  until 
the  sun  had  warmed  the  water  before  taking  their  bath. 
So  the  days  went  by,  each  full  of  new  sights  and  ex- 
periences. There  were  water-sports  on  the  river,  the 
boys  having  swimming  and  diving  matches,  or  climb- 
ing a  greased  pole  leaning  over  the  water,  at  the  end  of 
which  dangled  a  little  bag  containing  a  rupee  to  reward 


( 


UP  COUNTRY  127 

the  one  able  to  pull  it  off.  Many  tumbled  into  the 
water  and  swam  to  shore  before  the  rupee  was  cap- 
tured. Two  nights  there  were  fireworks  on  the  river. 
Then  we  tried  elephant  riding,  the  whole  party  going 
in  state  on  three,  to  attend  the  durbar,  where  the  mat- 
guzars  (property  owners)  and  the  petty  rajahs  of  the 
district  present  their  compliments  to  the  deputy  com- 
missioner. These  were  all  clad  in  their  richest  cloth- 
ing. There  were  embroidered  cashmere  robes,  pure 
goldwork  in  their  pugris,  and  velvet,  satin,  silver  and 
gold  shimmering  on  every  side.  One  pugri  we  noticed 
must  have  contained  twenty  or  thirty  yards  of  fine 
material  woven  at  intervals  with  threads  of  pure  gold, 
twisted  into  a  rope  and  then  twisted  around  the  head  in 
many  folds  and  bands.  But  in  almost  every  case  the 
whole  effect  was  spoiled  by  some  incongruous  article 
of  attire — a  soiled  pugri  with  a  velvet  coat,  or  cheap 
cotton  pantaloons  with  a  satin  robe  worked  in  gold  and 
silver  thread.  After  the  presentation  of  all  these  digni- 
taries by  the  tahsildar  of  the  district  to  the  deputy  com- 
missioner, the  latter  gave  a  speech  in  Hindustani, 
which  met  with  a  warm  response,  judging  by  the  bows 
and  salaams  in  the  audience.  Then  he  and  all  the 
rest  of  the  Europeans  were  garlanded  with  flowers, 
marigolds  and  asters  predominating,  bouquets  for  all, 
followed  by  the  inevitable  pansouparee,  which  is  betel 
leaves  enclosing  spice,  lime  and  pounded  betel  nuts. 
On  Monday  night  a  brisk  but  happily  brief  shower  of 
rain  fell — a  most  unusual  thing  for  this  season,  when 
you  can  plan  a  picnic  weeks  in  advance,  feeling  sure  of 
the  weather.     When  the  rain  came  down  a  cry  of  dis- 


128  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

may  went  up  from  the  fair  and  confusion  reigned,  as 
the  shopkeepers  endeavored  to  save  their  goods,  and 
thousands  who  were  utterly  shelterless  ran  distractedly 
here  and  there.  The  next  morning  the  roads  were 
full  of  carts,  people  on  foot,  donkeys,  long  camel 
trains  and  elephants  leaving  the  fair.  Closely  covered 
wagons  conveyed  away  the  few  purdah  women  who 
had  ventured  to  the  Mela.  Two  days  later  the  last 
tent  on  the  cliff  was  folded  and,  like  the  Arabs,  we 
"silently  stole  away." 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
BEHIND  THE  PURDAH. 

Among  the  better  classes  in  India  women  can  only 
be  reached  by  women.  The  male  missionary  can 
never,  except  by  hearsay,  gain  any  knowledge  of  the 
women  kept  in  purdah,  or,  as  they  say  in  South  India, 
the  gosha  women.  Purdah  means  curtain,  and  the  idea 
is  that  the  women  are  restrained  in  concealment  or, 
secrecy.  These  women  are  never  seen,  for  when  they 
go  out  for  a  drive  it  is  in  carriages  with  Venetian 
blinds,  or  with  "chicks"  hanging  at  door  or  window; 
or,  perhaps  in  a  bullock-cart,  over  the  frame  of  which1 
a  heavy  blanket  or  quilt  is  thrown. 

Let  me  introduce  you  to  two  or  three  of  these 
houses,  where  dwell  zenana,  or  purdah  women.  Ze- 
nana means  simply  the  women's  quarters.  Some  time 
ago  I  saw  an  article  written  by  a  missionary  in  which 
reference  was  made  to  zenana  work.  It  was  written 
as  if  the  work  were  done  in  a  country  by  that  name,  and 
he  spoke  of  the  people  as  "Zenanese."  While  appre- 
ciating the  ridiculous  mistake  he  made,  yet  I  could 
but  think  that  the  women  of  the  zenanas  really  consti- 
tute a  distinct  people — veiled  and  hidden. 

But  as  I  said,  let  us  visit  a  few  of  these  houses. 
Here  is  one  occupied  by  a  well-to-do  pleader.  It  is  a 
small,  whitewashed  house  with  a  neat  little  veranda 

129 


130  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

in  front.  Here  the  men  are  sitting  and  much  business 
is  being  transacted,  besides  plenty  of  visiting  and  gos- 
siping. We  pass  through  a  side  entrance,  approached 
by  a  little  alley,  at  the  end  of  which  hangs  a  coarse  cur- 
tain. After  giving  warning  of  our  approach,  we  enter 
the  little  courtyard.  On  three  sides  are  the  rooms  of 
the  house  and  on  the  other  a  high  wall.  This  court- 
yard is  paved  and  is  very  clean,  in  marked  contrast  to 
the  courtyards  of  most  of  the  houses  we  visit.  The 
woman  who  lives  here,  although  not  able  to  come  out 
or  be  baptized,  is  really  an  earnest  Christian ;  so  no  idol 
or  image  or  even  a  tulsi  plant  is  seen  in  either  her  home 
or  yard.  She  can  read  also  and  has  her  Bible  and 
songbook  in  Bengali. 

This  is  a  bright  spot — an  oasis  in  the  desert  of 
heathenism  in  which  we  work.  We  have  but  one  other 
like  it.  Very  near  this  pleasant,  though  shut-in  home, 
we  enter  a  similar  alley,  raise  another  sack-cloth  cur- 
tain and  find  ourselves  in  a  very  different  little  yard. 
This  is  a  Mohammedan  house.  On  two  sides  are  nar- 
row verandas;  on  the  others,  sheds  for  the  cow,  the 
calf,  the  buffalo,  the  goats  and  the  chickens.  As  this 
enclosure  is  very  small,  not  more  than  thirty  feet 
across,  we  are  practically  in  the  stable,  with  all  its 
odors.  The  yard  is  muddy,  during  the  rainy  season, 
and  always  full  of  litter.  Over  an  old  bedstead  or 
charpoy,  some  home-made  vermicelli  is  being  strung 
out  to  dry.  It  is  far  from  appetizing  in  appearance. 
Four  women  are  present — the  grandmother,  mother 
and  two  daughters.  The  young  women  examine  my 
dress  and  sun-hat;  but  the  two  older  women  leave 


BEHIND  THE  PURDAH  131 

their  curry-making  to  listen  attentively  to  the  lesson, 
only  interrupting  occasionally  to  say :  "Thik  bat,  Thik 
bat"  (Good  words,  Good  words).  Then  we  sing. 
Perhaps  the  chorus  is  swelled  by  the  low  of  cattle  or 
the  bleating  of  the  kid.  On  stifling  mornings  these 
surroundings  are  anything  but  agreeable;  but  the 
heavenly  missionary,  about  whom  we  have  come  to 
speak,  was  born  among  such  lowly  scenes,  so  we  should 
not  disdain  them.  Just  as  we  are  leaving  we  notice 
one  of  the  women  giving  opium  to  a  child. 

The  next  house  we  visit  is  also  Mohammedan  and 
more  untidy  even  than  the  one  we  have  just  left.  We 
sit  inside  the  house,  but,  by  keeping  near  the  dingy 
curtain  of  the  door,  we  get  enough  air  to  prevent 
asphyxiation,  although  it  comes  from  the  filthy  court- 
yard. In  spite  of  these  untoward  surroundings  the  mis- 
tress is  the  fine  lady  completely.  She  is  dressed  in 
loose  Turkish  trousers  and  quantities  of  jewelry,  and 
would  hold  herself  above  work  even  if  she  had  to  climb 
over  litter  to  reach  her  proper  position.  Oh !  the  idle- 
ness in  these  homes!  Nothing  to  do  and  no  one  to 
teach !  Feeling  superior  to  menial  work,  while  the 
house  and  courtyard  reek  with  disease-germs  and  sick- 
ness is  rampant  all  about !  This  lady  is  soon  busy  with 
the  inevitable  pan  box.  From  the  numerous  little 
boxes  in  the  lower  part  of  the  large  one  come  forth 
the  betel,  cardamom,  cocoanut,  catechu  and  slacked 
lime,  with  which  the  delectable  morsel  called  pan  is 
made.  The  curious  knives  are  held  between  the  bare 
toes  of  the  fair  one  as  she  chips  up  the  ingredients. 
The  lime  and  the  catechu  are  smeared  over  the  inside 


132  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

of  the  betel  leaf,  bits  of  cocoanut,  betel-nut,  cardamom 
and  sometimes  other  spices  are  put  at  the  top,  the  leaf 
is  folded  together  and  pinned  with  a  clove,  and  then 
passed  around.  The  native  women  take  the  whole 
strong  dose  into  their  mouths  at  once  and  chew  away 
until  their  lips,  tongue  and  gums  are  a  bright  red. 
The  juice,  ejected  now  and  then,  is  almost  as  disgust- 
ing as  that  from  a  tobacco  chewer's  mouth.  We  take 
a  pan  for  politeness*  sake,  but  keep  it  to  give  to  a  ser- 
vant at  home,  and  comply  with  the  demands  of  cus- 
tom by  eating  the  seeds  from  a  whole  cardamom, 
which,  being  covered  by  nature,  we  know  to  be  clean. 
Now  pass  into  this  Brahmin's  house.  The  wife 
comes  into  the  courtyard  hurriedly  to  say  her  husband 
is  eating  his  food  and,  therefore,  she  cannot  listen  to- 
day. Just  then  we  see  this  "lord  of  creation"  sitting 
in  a  veranda  eating  with  his  fingers  from  a  brass  plate. 
He  scarcely  dares  lift  his  eyes,  he  is  so  afraid  we  may 
do  something  to  cause  him  to  lose  his  meal.  Should 
our  shadow  touch  his  dishes,  or  himself,  the  remainder 
of  the  food  would  be  unclean  and  must  be  thrown 
away.  We  hurry  away,  but  glance  back  in  time  to  see 
the  wife  sit  down  at  a  respectful  distance  to  watch  him 
eat,  waiting  like  a  dog  for  the  remains  of  the  meal. 
This  courtyard,  to  a  superficial  observer,  might  seem 
clean.  The  mud-floored  house  and  veranda  have  been 
leeped— -that  is,  smeared  with  cow-manure  and  water, 
which  is  the  usual  cleanser  for  the  majority  of  houses 
here.  There  is  very  little  litter  about,  but  under  the 
bench  where  the  water  jug  stands  it  is  green  with 


BEHIND  THE  PURDAH  133 

mould  and  the  children  are  not  cleanly  in  their  habits. 
It  is  in  no  way  a  healthful  place  to  live  in,  as  we  under- 
stand the  term. 

Many  missionaries,  in  writing  of  India,  speak  of 
the  people  as  cleanly  in  their  ways.  Our  experience 
of  ten  years  among  all  classes  of  people  has  convinced 
us  that,  in  spite  of  numerous  bathings  among  certain 
Hindu  classes,  which  are  chiefly  ceremonial  perform- 
ances, the  habits  of  the  people  of  India  as  a  whole  are 
anything  but  cleanly,  as  we  understand  cleanliness. 
There  are  exceptions,  and  in  some  houses  we  can  eat 
with  as  good  an  appetite  as  in  our  own;  but  in  the 
great  majority  of  dwellings  the  surroundings  are  dis- 
agreeable and  the  habits  of  the  inmates  far  from  neat 
or  careful. 

Besides  these  homes  of  upper-class  Mohammedans, 
Hindus  of  various  castes,  of  poor  and  rich,  we  have 
been  in  some  of  the  finest  houses  in  Calcutta,  one  of 
which  was  almost  entirely  built  of  marble;  yet  in  all 
these  the  women  live  inferior,  shut-in  and,  for  the  most 
part,  idle  lives.  As  their  homes,  so-called,  are  behind 
heavy  curtains  and  high  walls,  so  their  thoughts  are 
shrouded  by  the  mists  of  ignorance  and  superstition, 
their  hearts  by  unhappiness  and  loneliness  and  their 
soul  denied  the  light  and  life  of  God. 

A  dark  picture, — but  no  darker  than  the  truth.  I 
often  think  as  I  lift  the  purdah,  which  is  so  frequently 
made  of  sack-cloth,  how  fitting  the  material  which 
shuts  in  the  inmates  of  the  zenana. 

Many,  perhaps  most  of  these  women,  do  not  realize 
their  own  condition.    Usage  throughout  long  centuries 


134  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

has  paralyzed  their  feelings  and  sensibilities.  The 
fish  found  in  the  underground  river  of  the  Mammoth 
Cave,  in  Kentucky,  have  ceased  to  develop  eyes.  But 
when  the  lords  and  masters  of  these  women  tell  the 
Mem  Sahib  that  these  purdah  women  are  just  as  happy 
as  English  women,  they  are  telling  what  most  of  them 
know  to  be  untrue.  One  Mohammedan  gentleman  of 
good  education,  said  to  me:  "Why,  so  long  have  our 
women  sat  in  the  house  that  they  canont  walk  any  dis- 
tance as  you  ladies  can,  even  if  they  had  the  liberty  to 
do  so.  It  would  be  a  hardship  to  them.  They  are  hap- 
pier as  they  are."  Forsooth !  Because  a  bird's  pinions 
hang  weak  and  powerless  from  disuse,  therefore  he  is 
happier  than  the  bright  creatures  caroling  in  yonder 
tree! 

The  rose-colored  life  of  the  harem  and  zenana,  as 
pictured  by  travelers — always  men,  of  course — who 
never  see  what  they  describe  so  poetically,  has  no  real- 
ity in  Eastern  lands. 

The  wife  of  the  man  just  referred  to  is  a  superior 
woman,  considering  her  lack  of  opportunities.  Could 
he  have  heard  her  pour  out  her  heart  to  me  one  day,  I 
wonder  what  he  would  have  said.  I  did  not  dare  tell 
him  for  fear  he  would  forbid  us  the  house. 

This  patient  woman,  trying  to  endure  and  smiling 
when  her  very  soul  revolted  against  her  life,  has  often 
been  a  lesson  to  me.  She  seemed  to  long  to  see  the 
beautiful  world  of  which  she  could  catch  only  tiny 
glimpses. 

"Are  not  God's  flowers  and  trees  for  us  women 
also?"  she  asked.  "I  am  so  weary  of  this  little  back- 
yard.   Why  did  God  make  us  to  live  so?" 


BEHIND  THE  PURDAH  135 

"But,"  we  said,  "this  is  not  God's  doing,  but  man's. 
When  Christ's  message  is  accepted  in  this  land  every- 
one shall  be  free." 

"How  long  will  that  be?"  she  asked,  looking  into 
our  faces  with  appealing  eyes. 

"Perhaps  in  twenty-five  years,"  we  answered, 
scarcely  knowing  what  to  say. 

Twenty-five  years !  Then  we  shall  be  dead,"  was 
her  despairing  answer.  "If  I  should  die  to-night,"  she 
continued,  "I  should  be  hurried  away  to  the  grave, 
and  my  own  mother  and  sister  could  not  see  me,  for 
they  do  not  belong  to  this  household.  We  are  very 
strict  Mohammedans  here.  Once,  when  two  nephews 
came  to  visit  us,  they  were  sitting  on  the  back  veranda 
talking  to  my  husband,  so  I  made  some  nice  pan  and 
took  it  out  to  them.  My  husband  told  me  afterwards 
that  though  they  were  relatives,  I  must  never  do  such 
a  thing  again." 

When  this  man  gave  us  permission  to  visit  his  wife 
it  was  with  the  distinct  understanding  that  we  were 
not  to  teach  the  Bible.  His  wife  wanted  a  sewing- 
machine  and,  if  we  would  promise  to  teach  her  how  to 
use  it  he  would  buy  her  one.  We  might  sing  our 
songs,  but  we  must  not  read  the  Bible,  he  said,  or  pray 
in  his  house. 

"Well,  we  can  sing  Bible  and  we  can  carry  our 
Bibles  along,"  I  said,  "so  we'll  go." 

The  machine  was  bought ;  and  it  was  worth  while 
going,  merely  to  give  the  pleasure  that  the  machine 
brought  into  that  woman's  life.  But  our  mission  did 
not  end  there.     We  sang  Bible  truths  and  finally,  one 


136  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

day,  the  woman  asked  us  if  our  Bible  told  of  the  same 
things  as  our  songs,  and  especially  about  the  love  of 
God.  We  told  her  it  did  and  she  asked  us  to  read  a 
verse.  As  her  mother-in-law  was  present  and  offered 
no  objection,  we  complied,  and  soon  we  were  reading 
and  praying  with  that  family. 

The  husband  is  in  government  employ  and,  after 
we  had  been  visiting  in  his  house  for  about  a  year,  he 
was  tranferred  to  another  station.  In  order  to  keep 
his  wife  in  purdah  on  the  journey,  he  chartered  a  car 
and  had  curtains  put  at  all  the  windows.  She  looked 
forward  with  dread  to  her  new  home,  for  she  said  the 
house  rented  there  was  smaller  than  the  one  here,  "and 
this  one  seems  so  small,  when  it  is  all  one's  world." 
This  woman  is  in  a  prison  as  truly  as  if  immured  for 
some  grave  offense.  Her  one  crime  is  in  being  a 
woman.  For  this,  she  may  never  wander  among  flow- 
ers, look  up  at  stately  trees,  see  the  expanse  of  the 
azure  sky  or  the  clear  moonlight  falling  upon  the  earth 
at  night.  She  may  not  mingle  even  in  companies  of 
her  own  sex,  except  on  the  rarest  occasions.  When 
leaving  here,  she  was  invited  to  spend  an  afternoon  at 
each  of  three  Mohammedan  houses.  She  asked  her 
husband  about  going  and  he  said :  "You  may  have  an 
afternoon  for  all  three  houses,  and  you  are  not  to  be 
out  after  six  o'clock." 

So,  veiled  from  head  to  foot  and  seated  in  a  bullock- 
cart  whose  bamboo  top  was  covered  with  smothering 
blankets,  this  victim  of  Mohammed's  inventions  took 
a  brief  respite  from  her  prison.  The  case  of  this  Mus- 
sulmani  is  not  an  isolated  one.   Another  woman  here 


BEHIND  THE  PURDAH  137 

came  to  a  little  brick-and-mud  house  as  a  bride  of  ten 
and  never  left  it,  even  for  a  brief  visit,  until  she  be- 
came a  grandmother.  Fortunately  for  her  the  rains 
one  summer  beat  it  down  so  badly  that  her  husband 
was  obliged  to  secure  another,  in  which  she  now  lives. 
Probably  she  will  never  go  out  of  it  until  carried  to 
sleep  in  a  still  narrower  one  in  the  Mohammedan  ceme- 
tery outside  the  city. 

Hundreds  and  thousands  of  such  cases,  among 
both  Hindus  and  Mohammedans,  can  be  found  in  In- 
dia. Life-sentences  are  common.  Some  women  of 
the  upper  class  live  in  oriental  splendor  and  would 
resent  the  statement  that  they  are  unhappy.  A  few 
have  fine  furnishings  and  surroundings,  rich  clothes 
and  quantities  of  costly  jewelry.  But  these  women 
spend  their  days  in  what  would  be  to  their  Western 
sisters  an  elegant  prison.  Others,  belonging  to  the 
classes  who  believe  in  reform,  can  go  about  a  little; 
but  they  have  no  worthy  interests,  no  taste  for  reading 
and  live  very  selfish,  empty  lives.  One  woman  we 
know  bathes  four  or  five  times  a  day,  anointing  herself 
with  almond  paste  and  costly  oils,  using  expensive 
soaps  and  perfumes,  all  to  preserve  her  beauty,  which 
she  worships.  Her  powder--boxes  are  of  silver,  her 
eyebrow  powder-boxes  of  pure  gold,  her  toilet-tables 
covered  with  silver  slabs  and  her  couch  draped  in  dif- 
ferent-colored silks  to  suit  the  season.  Her  bath- 
room is  lined  with  full-length  mirrors  and  in  her  pos- 
session is  every  gem  except  the  pearl  of  great  price. 
She  considers  herself  a  very  fortunate  woman.  It  is  in 
these  exercises — in  devising  new  ornaments  for  her 


138  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

already  overloaded  silver  jewel  boxes  and  in  rich  eat- 
ing— that  she  passes  her  days.  There  is  no  useful  em- 
ployment, no  philanthropic  schemes,  no  real  home- 
making.  Even  the  "eat,  drink  and  be  merry"  life  is 
carried  out  in  its  crudest  and  narrowest  form.  The 
possession  of  jewelry  is  one  of  the  chief  joys  of  these 
women.  Even  if  in  common  mud-houses,  without 
rugs,  carpets,  tables,  pictures,  chairs  or  any  comforts, 
yet  their  jewel-boxes  will  be  well  furnished  if  there  is 
any  means  to  procure  the  gold,  silver  and  precious 
stones. 

The  high-class  women  are  guarded  very  carefully 
when  they  go  to  the  Ganges  or  other  sacred  rivers  to 
bathe.  They  go  in  purdah — that  is,  in  shut-up  garis, 
or  carriages  such  as  I  have  described,  and  usually  very 
early  in  the  morning,  before  the  sun  is  up,  to  escape 
observation. 

At  some  places — as  for  instance  the  sacred  city  of 
Pushkar,  near  Ajmere,  beside  the  sacred  lake — special 
zenana  ghats  have  been  built  by  rajahs  for  the  women 
of  their  households.  The  rajahs  of  Bhurtpore,  Odey- 
pore,  Jeypore  and  others  have  built  such  ghats  there. 
Above  is  a  court,  open  overhead,  where  the  women  are 
cutting  their  hair;  or,  in  the  case  of  widows,  shaving 
their  heads  and  being  questioned,  tutored  and  we  might 
add  robbed  by  those  human  leeches,  Hindu  priests.  Then 
you  descend,  over  steep,  slippery  steps,  down,  down, 
until  you  reach  a  room  where  the  sun  never  penetrates, 
and  so  low  that  you  cannot  stand  upright  in  it.  Here 
water  is  admitted  for  the  women's  bath.    A  dark  and 


BEHIND  THE  PURDAH  139 

dismal  arrangement;  but,  if  it  is  secret,  it  satisfies  all 
demands  for  the  Hindu  woman. 

One  of  the  underlying  reasons  for  this  seclusion 
is  the  idea  that  women  are  not  to  be  trusted.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  read  a  few  of  Manu's  laws  regarding 
women  and  some  catechisms  referring  to  woman's  po- 
sition to  realize  what  is  the  real  condition  of  India's 
one  hundred  million  women,  of  whom  ninety-nine 
million  can  neither  read  nor  write.  One  catechism 
runs  thus : 

"Question — What  is  the  gate  to  hell?  Answer — 
A  woman.  Q. — What  bewitches  like  wine?  A. — A 
woman.  Q. — Who  is  the  wisest  of  the  wise?  A. — 
He  who  has  not  been  deceived  by  woman,  who  may  be 
compared  to  malignant  fiends.  Q. — What  are  fetters 
to  men  ?  A. — Women.  Q. — What  is  that  which  can- 
not be  trusted?    A. — A  woman." 

Then  Manu  says:  "Hear,  now,  the  duties  of 
woman.  By  a  girl,  by  a  young  woman,  or  even  by  an 
aged  one,  nothing  must  be  done  independently,  even  in 
her  own  house."  Again  he  says:  "Though  destitute 
of  virtue,  or  seeking  pleasure  elsewhere,  or  devoid  of 
good  qualities,  yet  a  husband  must  be  constantly  wor- 
shiped by  his  wife." 

This  is,  indeed,  her  religion — to  look  upon  her  hus- 
band as  a  god  and  to  hope  for  salvation  only  through 
him.  So  inbred  is  this  idea  of  subjection  and  seclu- 
sion that  many  think,  as  one  woman  said  in  all  sin- 
cerity to  Miss  Stephens,  in  Madras :  "I  am  not  a  sin- 
ner, for  I  never  even  look  outside  of  my  house."  In 
spite  of  this  degraded  position  the  women  of  India 


140  MOSAICS  FkOM  INDIA. 

have  a  great  influence  over  their  children  and,  in  re- 
ligious matters,  even  over  their  husbands.  It  is  they 
who  see  to  the  maintenance  of  the  worship  of  the 
household  gods;  they  who  make  the  special  sweet- 
meats for  dawali  holidays  and  who  kindle  the  little 
lights  to  keep  off  the  evil  spirits;  they  who  instruct 
the  little  ones  in  superstitions  which  remain  with  them 
all  their  lives.  In  the  case  of  apostasizing  Christians 
it  is  usually  the  women,  being  less  well  taught  than 
the  men,  who  soonest  go  back  to  heathenism.  In  a 
case  we  knew,  a  child  fell  sick.  The  mother  wanted 
something  more  to  be  done  and,  at  her  instigation,  a 
fowl  was  sacrificed  to  the  old  Hindu  god  they  had  left. 
In  other  cases  women  have  been  known  to  hide  idols, 
thinking  they  may  be  wanted  some  time,  should  the 
new  religion  fail. 

We  see,  then,  how  all-important  it  is  to  reach  the 
women ;  and  the  zenana  work,  expensive  as  it  undoubt- 
edly is,  and  requiring  so  many  workers,  is  yet  the  only 
way  to  reach  millions  and  millions  of  women — es- 
pecially those  of  the  upper  classes.  We  are  often  told 
that  people  in  America  and  England  think  compara- 
tively little  of  this  work,  since  its  results  seem  so 
small,  and  this  feeling  is  exhibited  to  some  extent  by 
certain  missionaries,  who  have  been  in  other  work  all 
their  lives  and  have  given  very  little  thought  to  this. 
If  by  result  is  meant  the  number  of  baptisms,  then  we 
must  certainly  concede  that  there  is  very  little  use  in 
zenana  work.  But  as  we  do  not  believe  that  salva- 
tion is  obtained  in  the  rite  of  baptism*,  we  cannot  esti- 
mate the  number  saved  by  the  baptisms  received.    We 


BEHIND  THE  PURDAH  141 

all  know  well  that  hundreds  who  have  accepted 
baptism  in  Christian  lands,  as  well  as  in  India,  have 
appropriated  almost  nothing  else  of  the  religion  of 
Christ.  Many  can  truly  say  with  some  of  the  early 
converts  in  Paul's  day:  "We  have  not  so  much  as 
heard  that  there  is  a  Holy  Ghost." 

Hundreds  of  zenana  women  have  escaped  entirely 
from  the  thraldom  of  idolatry  through  the  teaching  of 
Christ's  life  and  example;  yet  we  know  that  among 
some  baptized,  nominal  Christians  idol  worship  is 
often  persisted  in  for  years  as  it  was  in  the  early  days 
in  Britain  among  the  converted  Druids,  and  as  in 
Paul's  time. 

All  these  things  are  not  to  be  wondered  at  when 
founding  the  Christian  church  where  heathenism,  with 
all  its  practices,  prevails ;  but  it  is  certain  that,  in  look- 
ing for  results,  we  must  seek  other  manifestations  be- 
sides baptisms  and  membership  in  the  church. 

It  is  said,  however,  that  in  Lucknow  there  was  no 
perceptible  increase  in  the  Christian  community  until 
after  the  zenana  work  was  opened  and  carried  on  for 
some  time.  The  mothers  were  taught,  the  children  in- 
fluenced and  many  are  now  Christian  students  in  Chris- 
tian colleges  and  members  of  churches.  This  zenana 
work  was  not  even  begun  until  1855,  and  not  one  in  a 
hundred  homes  is  yet  reached.  We  do  not  know  the 
value  that  God  puts  upon  the  various  souls  in  this  com- 
plex and  confusing  world  panorama;  yet  how  we  are 
stirred  and  thrilled  when  a  Pundita  Ramabai,  a  Soon- 
derbai  Powar  or  a  Sooboo  Nagam  lay  their  rich  treas-. 
ures   of   intellect  and  heart  at  the  feet  of  our   Lord. 


142  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Such  are  naturally  as  richly  endowed  as  their  hus- 
bands, fathers  and  brothers,  and  only  need  opportunity 
to  develop  into  cultured,  noble  women. 

As  we  spend  money  and  time  in  the  effort  to  reach 
the  intelligent  classes  of  men  in  India,  let  us  be  equally 
lavish  in  trying  to  reach  their  wives  and  sisters.  Teach 
these  women  until  they  will  urge  the  sons  to  espouse 
the  cause  of  reform  and  receive  and  defend  the  pure 
religion  of  Christ.  One  mother  among  my  zenana 
women  did  that  very  thing.  Doubtless  there  are  more 
like  her.  The  real  results  to  be  sought  are  seen  in  the 
lives  of  the  women,  their  influence  over  their  children, 
and,  in  some  cases,  upon  their  husbands.  A  friend,  in 
writing  from  America,  expressed  her  surprise  that  we 
could  enter  the  zenanas  at  all.  "When  I  read  of  such 
persecutions  as  met  Sooboo  Nagam  Ammal  in  Madras 
when  she  wished  to  become  a  Christian,  and  which 
followed  after  her  public  confession  of  the  faith,  I  can- 
not understand  why  the  men  allow  you  to  enter  the 
houses  at  all."  Humanly  speaking,  there  is  no  ade- 
quate explanation  of  this  toleration ;  yet  a  partial  rea- 
son may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  men  notice  a 
difference  in  their  homes  when  the  women  are  taught 
by  the  missionaries  and  Bible-women.  One  man  said 
to  us:  "You  are  very  welcome  to  my  house.  Since 
you  have  been  teaching  my  women  there  is  scarcely 
any  quarreling  in  this  house."  Such  news  spreads 
and,  in  the  interest  of  peace,  industry  and  cleanliness, 
we  are  welcomed.  Many  of  these  men  desire  their 
women  to  learn  to  be  wiser  and  better  and  sweeter- 
tempered,  but  do  not  wish  them  to  become  baptized 


BEHIND  THE  PURDAH  143 

and  recognized  Christians.  This  latter  would  break 
their  caste  and  all  the  consequences  of  boycotting  and 
ostracism  would  follow. 

There  are  many  women  in  the  purdah  homes  who 
are  living  beautiful  lives ;  many  who  never  bow  to  idols 
and  have  none  about  the  premises.  Some  outwardly 
do  homage  to  idols,  when  others  do,  in  order  to  avoid 
family  strife,  but  their  hearts  are  not  in  the  ceremony. 
They  tell  us  that  they  quietly  say  their  prayers  to  the 
true  God  and,  like  Naaman,  the  Syrian,  pray  to  be 
forgiven  as  they  bow  before  Ganesh  and  other  false 
gods,  unwilling  worshipers,  as  was  Naaman  in  the 
house  of  Rimmon — secret  disciples,  it  is  true,  but  in 
times  of  persecution  there  are  always  secret  disciples. 
There  were  such  in  the  olden  days  in  Rome.  Even  a 
Nicodemus  came  by  night  into  the  presence  of  Jesus. 

Many  of  these  women  would  find  very  little  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  the  consent  of  their  husbands  to  their 
receiving  baptism  if  it  could  be  administered  in  the 
home  by  women-missionaries.  In  some  missionary 
circles  in  America  and  Scotland  the  plea  has  been  made 
for  the  full  ordination  of  some  consecrated  women  to. 
the  ministry  in  order  that  this  need  in  the  zenanas 
might  be  met.  Chundra  Leela,  the  devoted  Bengali 
woman  preacher  and  teacher,  on  finding  herself  alone 
with  a  dying  convert  who  pleaded  for  baptism,  waited 
for  no  authority  from  man,  but  simply  and  reverently 
administered  the  rite — and  who  shall  say  it  was  not 
blessed  of  God? 

What  effect  will  all  this  teaching  of  the  women  have 
upon  the  establishing  of  the  Christian  church  in  India? 


144  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

These  women  are  being  educated  and  confirmed  in  the 
virtues  which  will  hold  them  steady  when  the  artificial 
props  of  purity  are  withdrawn ;  and,  when  the  men  of 
the  higher  castes  come  in  large  numbers,  as  those  of 
the  lower  classes  are  already  coming,  these  women  will 
be  ready  to  take  their  places  beside  their  husbands  and 
brothers  in  the  church. 

Some  of  the  ideas  of  seclusion  will  take  long  to  die. 
It  is  possible  that  at  first  it  may  be  expedient  to  build 
our  churches  with  a  partition  down  the  center,  as  some 
Christian  churches  are  constructed  in  China  and  as 
one  is  already  built  here  in  India,  at  Peshawur.  Or  in 
the  middle  we  may  hang  up  a  real  purdah,  until  the 
spiritual  purdah  grows  strong.  The  individual  cup  at 
communion  may  be  necessary  before  many  of  the  deli- 
cately reared  could  be  physically  able  to  partake  of  this 
Christian  sacrament.  But  all  these  things  are  but 
t  minutiae  in  the  work,  which  is  to  bring  high  and  low 
to  the  feet  of  our  common  Lord. 

I  love  the  "zenanese."  No  class  needs  the  gospel 
more  and  perhaps  none  receives  it  more  gladly. 

The  walls  of  adamantine  prejudice  and  caste  will 
fall  some  day,  and  meantime  we  are  marching  around 
this  Jericho,  knowing  well  that  the  seventh  day  will 
dawn. 

In  the  grand  total  of  work  in  India  which  unseen 
hands  are  computing,  we  shall  find  that  the  days  of 
effort  spent  in  luxurious  homes  or  in  mud-floored  huts, 
behind  silken  or  sack-cloth  purdahs,  working  among 
the  shut-in  women  of  the  upper  classes,  have  borne 
rich  fruit. 


BEHIND  THE  PURDAH  145 

Just  now  the  mighty  cataract  of  Niagara  is  thun- 
dering in  our  ears  as  the  thousands  of  low-caste  flock 
into  the  Kingdom.  Everyone  sees  and  hears  and  ap- 
plauds with  joy.  But  the  mighty  Colorado  is  also  busy 
at  work  cutting  the  great  canyon  through  ignorance, 
superstition  and  fear — a  glorious  channel  for  the  flow- 
ing of  the  River  of  the  Water  of  Life ! 


CHAPTER  IX. 
THE  IRON  BRACELET. 

In  this  land  caste  dominates  everything  from  birth, 
marriage,  death  and  religion  down  to  the  daily  meal 
and  even  the  direction  in  which  a  man's  shadow  may 
fall.  Yet,  with  all  its  minuteness,  its  requirements  are 
so  constantly  incoherent  and  illogical  that  it  is  very 
difficult  to  recount  certain  customs  and  ideas  without 
fear  of  contradiction  from  someone  who  has  lived  in 
another  part  of  India  and  known  different  peoples  and 
usages.  The  practice  of  wearing  iron  bracelets  be- 
longs to  some  Brahmins  and  Kyasts  of  Bengal,  and 
may  obtain  among  other  castes  elsewhere.  In  some 
parts  of  Southern  India  a  wedding-necklet  is  worn  in 
place  of  the  iron  bracelet,  and  it  may  also  be  of  differ- 
ent materials. 

In  visiting  a  Bengali  lady  I  noticed  some  very 
dainty  and  beautiful  gold  circlets  on  her  wrists  and 
took  her  hand  in  order  to  look  at  them  more  carefully, 
when  a  dull  old  iron  bracelet  came  into  view.  I  ex- 
pressed my  surprise  that  such  an  ugly  band  should 
find  its  place  among  such  beauties,  when  the  owner 
explained  its  presence  as  follows :  "It  is,"  she  said,  "the, 
sign  of  our  marriage  and  is  put  on  by  the  mother-in- 
law,  and  must  never  be  put  off  even  in  death."  Many 
women,  ashamed  of  the  disfiguring  manacle,  have  it 
covered  with  solid  gold,  this  woman  told  me,  but  the 

146 


THE    IRON    BRACELET  147 

iron  is  always  there.  How  typical  is  the  iron  fetter  of 
marriage  and,  in  fact,  of  the  whole  condition  of  woman 
in  Eastern  lands! 

An  American,  lecturing  on  Turkey,  seemed  to  see 
only  the  golden  exterior  of  life  in  the  wealthy  harem, 
and  painted  the  lot  of  its  women  in  glowing  colors; 
but  could  he  have  listened,  as  no  man  is  ever  permitted 
to  do,  to  the  sorrowful  story,  seldom  divulged  to  a 
foreigner,  even  though  a  woman,  he  would  have  recog- 
nized the  iron  fetter  underneath  the  gold. 

A  beautiful  English  girl  whom  I  met  married  a 
Hindu,  while  he  was  in  college  in  England.  She  says 
that  she  and  her  people  must  have  been  lunatics  when 
they  agreed  to  such  a  marriage.  The  man  is  kind  in 
his  way,  but  they  can  never  have  a  home.  Equality  of 
the  sexes  is  a  thing  undreamed  of  by  an  Oriental,  un- 
less he  is  enlightened  by  the  religion  of  Christ.  Even 
then,  as  a  rule,  he  discerns  but  feebly  that  woman  is 
anything  better  than  a  slave  or,  at  most,  a  toy.  As 
women  rise  to  their  true  sphere  through  education  and 
reform,  these  ideas  will  disappear ;  but  the  process  can- 
not be  rapid. 

Another  instance  is  that  of  a  handsome  young 
Mohammedan  student  in  England,  who  married  a 
lovely  but  foolish  girl.  On  the  voyage  out  he  pro- 
duced the  iron  manacle,  telling  her  that  it  was  time  for 
her  to  know  that  he  had  three  other  wives  in  India, 
with  whom  she  must  share  his  wealth,  his  house  (not 
home)  and  his  name.  A  lady  on  board  the  same  ship 
saw  the  poor,  deluded  young  bride,  weeping  herself  ill 


148  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

over  the  railings  of  the  deck;  tempted  every  day  to 
fling  herself  into  the  waves  and  end  her  misery. 

All  over  India  unwilling,  purchased  and  unknowing 
brides  are  having  the  iron  fetter  riveted  on  arms, 
hearts  and  lives  I 

A  native  lady  once  said  to  me :  "If  you  English  and 
American  ladies  accomplish  nothing  else  in  India,  be 
sure  and  do  all  you  can  to  break  up  the  custom  of  early 
marriage.  We  must  look  to  you.  The  Englishmen 
will  make  laws  when  the  English  women  demand  them 
for  their  suffering  sisters." 

Jn  this  same  lady's  house  I  saw  a  bride  of  eleven 
years,  decked  in  silks  and  jewels  and  smiling  in  childish 
satisfaction  over  her  ornaments.  Poor,  innocent  little 
thing !  In  a  few  months  the  iron  fetter  will  be  riveted 
and,  in  the  dull  drudgery  of  the  mother-in-law's  home, 
the  smiles  will  vanish,  and,  unless  here  is  one  of  the 
extremely  rare  exceptions,  her  life  will  be  shrouded  in 
gloom. 

Soonderbai  Powar,  an  educated  Christian  native 
lady,  told  me  of  a  great-great-grandmother  aged  forty- 
eight.  She  was  a  mother  at  twelve  years  of  age — so 
was  her  daughter,  her  grand-daughter  and  her  great- 
granddaughter.  A  cousin  of  this  lady  was  also  a 
mother  at  twelve.  When  called  in  from  play  to  nurse 
the  child,  she  would  pinch  it  to  make  it  cry  so  loud  that 
an  older  relative  would  take  it  from  her  and  the  child- 
mother  be  allowed  to  return  to  her  sports. 

Often  a  child  of  ten  is  not  only  married  cere- 
monially, but  given  to  the  husband  as  his  actual  wife  at 
once.     Among  Brahmins,  girls  are  usually  married  be- 


THE    IRON    BRACELET  149 

tween  the  ages  of  three  and  twelve.  Not  to  be  married 
before  they  reach  the  age  of  puberty  means  excom- 
munication of  themselves  and  their  parents.  Many 
girls  are  given  to  men  fifty,  sixty  or  even  seventy  years 
of  age.  Therefore,  thousands  are  left  widows  while 
still  children.  Nothing  can  break  the  marriage  bond 
so  far  as  the  woman  is  concerned.  She  can  never  re- 
marry. The  husband  can,  however,  set  his  wife  aside 
if  she  is  childless,  and  for  various  other  reasons. 

When  infant  marriages  are  the  rule,  not  only 
among  Brahmins,  but  among  most  so-called  twice- 
born  castes,  and  even  imitated  lower  in  the  scale,  no 
wonder  the  fetter  must  be  one  of  iron  to  make  it  bind- 
ing, and  the  widow's  fate  rendered  sufficiently  terrible 
to  prevent  wretched  women  from  attempting  self-made 
widowhood. 

Very  little  has  been  done  by  government  since  1891, 
when  the  age  of  consent  was  raised  to  twelve  years. 
But  in  thousands  of  cases  this  regulation  is  not  ob- 
served, and,  since  the  home  of  the  child-bride  is  in  her 
husband's  family,  it  will  be  seen  how  difficult  any 
prosecution  would  be.  A  wife  must  live  with  her  hus- 
band, however  cruel  or  unnatural  he  may  prove.  It  is 
left  to  the  discretion  of  a  judge  whether,  on  refusal  to 
go  back  to  him,  she  may  be  sent  to  prison.  In  Mysore, 
a  native  state,  an  act  was  passed  in  1894  prohibiting 
marriages  of  girls  under  eight  years  of  age  and  of  men 
over  fifty  to  girls  under  fourteen. 

When  the  act  proposing  to  raise  the  age  of  con- 
sent from  ten  to  twelve  years  was  being  considered,  in 
1891,  there  were  large  gatherings  of  native  gentlemen 


150  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

to  protest  against  any  reform  of  Hindu  marriage  cus- 
toms. The  pundits  of  Poona  waited  on  Lord  Reay  to 
remonstrate  with  him  against  the  proposal.  We  were 
living  in  Poona  at  the  time,  and  many  and  bitter  were 
the  denunciations  of  the  bill  when  it  finally  passed. 
The  Social  Congress  met  in  Bombay  in  1889  and  peti- 
tioned government  to  protect  girls,  married  as  well  as 
unmarried,  at  least  up  to  the  age  of  twelve.  Then,  in 
1890,  occurred  the  horrible  death  of  Phulmani  Dasi, 
a  little  girl  under  twelve  years  of  age.  Her  husband 
was  sentenced  to  one  year's  imprisonment.  The  agita- 
tion caused  by  this  case  was  very  great,  and,  to  prove 
it  was  simply  one  among  hundreds  similar,  a  memorial 
was  prepared  by  Mrs.  Monelle  Mansell,  an  American 
lady-physician,  which  she  had  signed  by  fifty-five  other 
lady-physicians.  In  this  memorial  thirteen  cases,  too 
awful  to  be  given  here,  were  cited,  proving  beyond 
question  the  charges  brought  against  child-marriage 
on  the  ground  of  suffering  inflicted.  This  memorial 
showed  that  "death,  crippling  for  life,  torture  that 
would  put  a  fiend  to  shame,"  all  were  the  result  of  this 
dreadful  custom. 

Another  memorial  was  sent  by  eighteen  hundred 
native  ladies  from  all  parts  of  India,  addressed  to  the 
Queen  Empress,  asking  her  to  prevent  a  cruel  wrong  to 
which  the  womanhood  of  India  is  now  subject.  This 
memorial,  like  that  of  the  lady-physicians,  asked  for 
protection  for  girls  under  fourteen.  The  opposition, 
strong  as  it  was  in  Poona,  was  not  so  great  or  so  vio- 
lent as  in  Bengal. 


THE    IRON    BRACELET  151 

The  fear  on  the  part  of  the  government  was  that 
the  passage  of  the  act  would  be  considered  an  interfer- 
ence with  the  religious  customs  of  the  people  and  there- 
fore lead  to  riot.  The  bill  finally  passed,  fixing  the  age 
of  consent  at  twelve. 

The  Countess  of  Dufferin's  scheme  of  a  national  as- 
sociation for  supplying  medical  aid  to  women  had  a 
very  significant  origin,  showing  that  in  spite  of  the  de- 
graded position  given  to  woman  in  this  land,  there  are 
fair  and  noble  examples  of  enlightened  thought  among 
them. 

The  Government  Medical  Department  is  well 
equipped  and  you  will  find  hospitals  and  dispensaries 
in  almost  every  town  of  any  considerable  size.  But  as 
nearly  five  million  women  live  behind  the  purdah,  and 
fully  as  many  more  share  the  same  ideas  as  their  pur- 
dah or  gosha  sisters,  they  in  consequence  suffer  greatly 
from  malpractice  of  ignorant  native  nurses,  doctors  so- 
called,  and  midwives.  They  would  on  no  account  see 
a  male  practitioner  and  so  must  suffer  in  silence. 

In  1869  the  first  woman-physician  with  a  diploma 
who  ever  set  foot  in  Asia,  Miss  Clara  Swain,  was  sent 
out  by  the  American  Methodist  Foreign  Missionary 
Society.  Later  Miss  Bielby  was  sent  by  the  Indian 
Female  Normal  School  to  Lucknow.  Miss  Bielby  was 
called  to  Punna  to  attend  the  Maharajah's  wife.  When 
the  Rani  grew  better  and  learned  that  Miss  Bielby  was 
about  to  return  to  England,  she  sent  all  her  attendants 
from  the  room  and  said : 

"You  are  going  to  England  and  I  want  you  to  tell 
the  Queen  and  the  Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales  and 


152  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

the  men  and  women  in  England  that  the  women  in 
India  suffer  when  they  are  sick." 

She  meant  doubtless  that  they  suffer  without  rem- 
edy. Then  she  went  on  to  say  that  she  asked  for  no 
change  in  their  social  condition,  but  only  relief  from 
cruel  suffering.  *  Miss  Bielby  explained  the  difficulty 
of  approaching  the  Queen,  but  believing  Her  Majesty 
was  good  and  gracious,  the  Rani  insisted  on  dictating  a 
message,  telling  Miss  Bielby  to  write  it  small,  so  she 
could  carry  it  in  a  locket  and  give  it  herself  to  the 
Queen.  Finally,  through  some  court  ladies,  the 
Queen  heard  of  this  and  sent  for  Miss  Bielby,  listened 
to  the  message  and  accepted  the  locket.  She  sent  the 
following  reply: 

"We  should  wish  it  generally  known  that  we  sym- 
pathize with  every  effort  made  to  relieve  the  suffering 
of  the  women  in  India." 

The  subject  attracted  great  attention  in  England 
and,  as  Lord  Dufferin  was  about  to  sail  for  India  as 
Viceroy,  the  Queen  requested  Lady  Dufferin  to  do  all 
in  her  power  in  this  direction.  This  is  the  touching 
story  of  the  origin  of  the  National  Association,  which 
was  organized  in  1885.  This  movement  for  reform 
was  hailed  by  both  Hindus  and  Mohammedans  and 
received  support  both  in  sympathy  and  money. 

This  has  alleviated  the  misery  of  thousands  of 
cases.  It  would  seem  tenfold  wiser  to  relieve  much  of 
the  suffering  of  mere  children,  by  still  further  raising 
the  age  of  consent,  so  as  to  do  away  with  child-mar- 


♦From  Mrs.  Fuller's  book,  "Wrongs  of  Indian  Woman- 
hood." 


THE    IRON    BRACELET  153 

riage  altogether.  Meantime,  while  this  cannot  be  done, 
we  hail  with  joy  these  hospitals  and  lady-practitioners 
for  women. 

Not  only  Hindu,  but  Mohammedan  women  may 
well  wear  the  iron  emblem  of  their  married  and  social 
condition.  The  Koran  does  not  forbid  women  being 
taught  religion,  and  there  is  nothing  in  the  Vedas  or 
Shastras  commanding  the  keeping  of  purdah.  Polyg- 
amy receives  far  greater  countenance  in  Mohamme- 
danism, and  this  of  itself  is  sufficient  to  degrade  their 
women.  Added  to  this  the  Mohammedans  have  im- 
bibed many  of  the  Hindu  ideas  of  female  untrust- 
worthiness  and  ignorance,  making  the  woman's  lot 
harder  than  polygamy  alone  would  render  it.  On  the 
other  hand  the  Hindus — in  addition  to  the  hard  pre- 
cepts of  Manu,  assigning  to  women  approximately  the 
place  of  animals — adopted  from  their  Mohammedan 
conquerors  the  slavish  custom  of  purdah,  so  that,  by 
the  association  of  the  two  races,  the  sadness  of  the 
condition  of  women  in  each  is  doubled. 

A  case  in  Bombay  which  came  to  the  knowledge 
of  an  American  lady-doctor,  and  which  she  told  me, 
shows  the  estimate  put  upon  women  by  thousands  upon 
thousands  of  men  in  India.  This  is  the  story  of  the 
native  man  told  in  broken  English : 

"I  get  disease,"  he  said.  It  take  many  rupees  to 
cure  me.  Now  wife  get  same  ailment.  For  what  you 
cure  her?  She  is  good  wife,  sixteen  years  old,  she 
cook  for  me  and  my  three  brothers.  Not  want  new 
sari  every  year.  She  go  up  and  down  stairs  all  day, 
carry  water  jugs  up,  never  complains.     If  you  cure 


154  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

for  few  rupees  she  can  live.  If  you  want  many  rupees 
she  must  die  and  I  get  new  wife.  Maybe  not  get  such 
a  good  wife."     Comment  is  unnecessary. 

How  often,  when  I  have  gone  into  Mohammedan 
houses  (I  never  say  home  when  I  can  avoid  it,  for 
there  is  no  such  hallowed  place  in  India  outside  of 
Christ's  gospel),  I  have  found  the  wife  in  bitter  tears. 
A  new  wife  has  been  brought  home  and,  in  spite  of  all 
Mohammedans  and  Mormons  may  say,  the  God-given 
instinct  of  the  true  wife  cries  out  against  this  insult  to 
her  womanhood.  Often,  when  there  are  grown-up 
married  daughters  in  Mohammedan  houses,  the  father 
will  bring  home  another  wife  younger  than  the  daugh- 
ters. Two  or  more  wives  in  a  home  create  untold  mis- 
ery by  quarreling  and  jealousy.  It  is  a  struggle  to 
prove  which  shall  be  mistress  of  the  house  or  the  hut. 
In  one  home  I  visit,  the  new  wife — a  perfect  beauty 
by  the  way — sits  in  the  sun,  eating  sweets  and  pan,  or 
in  the  shade,  if  it  be  hot  weather,  while  the  first  wife 
and  the  mother  of  the  husband  spin  from  early  morn 
till  dark  to  earn  sufficient  to  support  the  additional 
member  of  the  family.  In  another  family  it  was  the 
story  of  "Sarah  and  Hagar"  repeated,  for  the  queenly 
first  wife  managed  to  make  a  slave  of  the  second,  never 
allowing  her  to  enter  her  apartment  and  giving  her 
only  calico,  brass  and  glass  to  wear,  while  she,  the 
rightful  mistress,  was  attired  in  silks  and  gold  and 
jewels. 

How  these  men  manage  to  find  their  wives  in  spite 
of  the  incomprehensible  purdah  system  I  do  not  know 
exactly,  but  probably  by  negotiating  with  poor  men 


THE    IRON    BRACELET  155 

who  could  not  afford  the  expense  attendant  on  giving 
their  daughters  as  first  wives.  Often,  however,  they 
are  taken  from  other  and  lower  castes  and  even  then 
the  second  one  frequently  manages  to  be  first  in  posi- 
tion. Monier  Williams  says,  in  his  book  on  "Brah- 
minism  and  Hinduism",  that  the  women  are  not  un- 
happy in  India;  moreover,  that  they  are  loved.  He 
also  declares  that  cruel  treatment  by  brutal  husbands 
is  unknown.  In  view  of  the  statements  made  by  the 
doctors  in  the  memorial  referred  to,  this  is  an  unsub- 
stantiated assertion.  An  old  lady  in  Poona  saw  a 
woman,  years  ago,  whose  eyes  had  just  been  put  out 
by  her  husband,  a  goldsmith,  because  she  had  spoken 
to  a  man  when  her  mother-in-law  was  absent  from  the 
shop.  Dr.  Stephens,  an  American  lady-doctor,  has 
told  me  some  awful  tales  of  cruel  beatings  and  brand- 
ings that  came  under  her  knowledge  as  superintendent 
of  the  government  dispensary  in  Poona.  I,  myself, 
have  seen  poor,  noseless  creatures  run  screaming  to 
the  kat chert  (court  house)  with  bleeding  faces  to  try 
and  get  redress  for  the  shameful  wrong  done  them. 
This  cutting  off  the  nose  of  the  wife,  if  the  husband 
believes  her  unfaithful,  is  no  uncommon  occurrence, 
even  if  the  man  himself  is  notoriously  inconstant.  We 
see  many  such  disfigured  faces  and  no  doubt  some  are 
the  result  merely  of  suspicion  and  jealousy.  Wife- 
beating  is  most  common  here,  and  the  wife  has  no  re- 
dress. After  the  remarkable  statement  by  so  eminent 
a  scholar  as  Monier  Williams,  he  goes  on  to  say  (I 
quote  exactly  from  pages  387  and  388)  : 

In  regard  to  women,  the  general  feeling  is  that 
they  are  the  necessary  machines  for  producing  children 


156  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

(Manu  \x:g6),  and,  without  children,  there  could 
be  no  due  performance  of  the  funeral  rites,  essential 
to  the  peace  of  a  man's  soul  after  death.  This  is 
secured  by  early  marriage.  If  the  law  required  the 
consent  of  boys  and  girls  before  the  marriage  cere- 
mony they  might  decline  to  give  it.  Hence  girls  are 
betrothed  at  three  or  four  years  of  age,  and  go 
through  the  marriage  ceremony  at  seven  to  boys  of 
whom  they  know  nothing;  and  if  these  boy  husbands 
die  the  girls  remain  virgin  widows  all  their  lives. 
They  may  be  taken  to  their  boy  husbands'  homes 
at  the  age  of  ten  and  may  even  become  mothers 
before  eleven. 

Sir  Monier  Williams  then  refers  to  a  law,  passed 
Mar.  19,  1 89 1,  making  it  illegal  for  girls  to  become  real 
wives  before  the  age  of  twelve,  and  he  concludes  in  the 
well-deserved  sarcasm :  "It  now  remains  to  be  seen 
whether  this  law  will  become  almost  a  dead-letter,  like 
the  act  of  1856  for  legalizing  the  marriage  of  widows." 

We,  ourselves,  know  of  cases  where  brides  of  ten 
are  taken  to  their  husband's  homes,  but  if  there  is  any 
report  given  to  the  authorities,  the  question  is  asked : 
"How  can  you  prove  she  is  his  real  wife  ?" 

Then  Sir  Monier  Williams  goes  on  to  give  further 
items  regarding  woman's  status  in  Indian  law,  religion 
and  society.  After  saying  that  they  are  not  unhappy, 
he  admits  all  the  following : 

It  is  true  that,  theoretically,  they  are  ignored  as 
separate  units  of  society.  It  is  true  that  they  abstain 
from  pronouncing  their  husband's  name,  calling  him 
simply  "lord,"  or  "the  master,"  or  "the  chosen" 
(vera),  and  they  themselves  are  never  directly 
alluded  to  by  their  husbands  in  conversation.  It  is 
true  that  for  a  male  friend  to  mention  their  names 
or  even  inquire  after  their  health  would  be  a  breach 
of  etiquette.     It  is  true,  too,  that  their  life  is  spent 


THE    IRON    BRACELET  157 

in  petty  household  duties,  in  superintending  the  fam- 
ily cuisine,  in  a  wearisome  round  of  trivial  acts.  It 
is  even  true  that  in  religion  they  are  theoretically 
placed  on  the  same  level  as  Sudras.  They  are  allowed 
no  formal  introduction  into  the  Hindu  faith,  no 
investiture  with  the  sacred  thread,  no  spiritual  second 
birth.  Marriage  is  to  them  the  end  and  aim  of  life, 
and  the  only  medium  of  regeneration.  No  other 
purifactory  rite  is  permitted  to  them.  They  never 
read,  repeat  or  listen  to  the  Veda.  Yet,  for  all  that, 
the  women  of  India  are  the  mainstay  of  Hinduism. 

Again  (page  388)  : 

Of  course,  those  women  of  the  upper  classes  who 
are  cooped  up  behind  purdahs,  in  secluded  apart- 
ments, vegetate  in  profound  ignorance  of  the  world 
around  them,  while  the  duty  of  training  and  forming 
the  character  of  their  children  is,  I  fear,  neglected 
by  all.  Still,  the  women  of  India  are  generally  sat- 
isfied with  their  position  and  desire   no   change. 

Is  there  any  foothold  for  happiness  in  such  a  life? 
Neglect  the  duty  of  training  their  children!  What 
would  be  expected  of  a  mother  in  Western  lands,  to 
whom  all  the  fountains  of  knowledge,  respect  and  even 
religion  were  closed, in  regard  to  training  her  children? 
You  cannot  teach  Euclid  before  you  learn  addition. 

As  viewed  by  a  woman's  eyes,  in  rich  and  poor 
homes,  among  high  and  low,  a  woman's  life  in  India 
seems  a  most  piteous  thing — a  wrong  crying  out  to 
God  and  humanity  for  redress !  In  the  narrow  and 
dingy  houses,  without  music,  pictures  or  books — except 
in  the  few  houses  where  reforms  are  dawning — with- 
out social  privileges,  with  no  companionship  from  hus- 
band or  sons,  who  despise  her  enforced  ignorance,  de- 
prived of  her  daughters  while  they  are  yet  little  chil- 
dren, eating  the  leavings  of  the  two  daily  meals,  flying 


158  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

from  the  presence  of  the  lord  and  master — always  un- 
der the  ban  of  restraint  and  silence — verily  the  iron 
bands  on  the  arms  of  the  Kyast  Bengali  women  are 
typical  of  the  bands  on  all  their  sisters  in  India ! 

Prisoners  of  custom  and  superstition,  they  look 
with  suspicion  as  well  as  with  envy  on  their  happy  sis- 
ters from  the  West,  and  wonder  how  they  can  be  good 
and  free  at  the  same  time.  Sitting  idle,  yet  weary — 
some  few  in  gilded  cages,  but  with  the  iron  hidden 
under  gold,  and  all  crushed  by  the  Hindu  and  the 
Mohammedan  opinions  and  rules  regarding  their  sex — 
with  sad,  appealing  eyes  they  look  to  us  for  light. 

Oh !  queens  of  cottages  or  mansions  in  the  Western 
lands,  honored  by  your  husbands,  reverenced  by  your 
sons,  with  fair  daughters  growing  up  into  noble  wom- 
anhood about  you,  turn  your  hearts,  your  thoughts  and 
your  efforts  to  your  sisters  of  the  Orient.  Can  you 
not,  like  the  little  Rani  of  Punna,  send  a  message  in  a 
golden  locket  of  love  that  will  open  some  door,  rend 
some  purdah,  or  let  in  one  ray  of  light  on  your  sister 
with  the  iron  bracelet  ? 


CHAPTER  X. 
LOWER  CASTE  WOMEN. 

The  question  was  asked  at  a  large  assembly  of  mis- 
sionaries in  America:  "To  what  extent  do  male  mis- 
sionaries and  native  preachers  secure  the  conversion  of 
native  women  ?  And  what  have  they  to  do  in  training 
native  Christian  women  in  Christian  doctrine  and 
life?" 

It  is  easier  to  answer  the  second  part  of  the  ques- 
tion first.  In  so  far  as  the  native  Christian  women  at- 
tend the  preaching  and  praying  services,  they  have  the 
same  opportunity  of  being  taught  as  women  in  other 
lands,  but  herein  lies  the  difficulty.  Very  few  will  go 
to  the  public  service  willingly  unless  they  have  been 
pupils  in  the  mission  schools,  or  are  wives  of  workers 
in  the  mission.  Among  village  Christians  it  is  well 
known  that  the  women  are  behind  the  men  in  knowl- 
edge of  Christian  doctrine  and  life.  This  is  very  easily 
understood  and  explained.  The  missionary,  or  native 
preacher,  can  secure  but  few  women  hearers  as  he  goes 
about  proclaiming  the  gospel  message.  In  many  vil- 
lages the  women  are  afraid  of  a  European  and  will 
flee  from  one.  A  white-face  terrifies  village  children 
who  have  never  seen  such  pale  features  before ;  and,  in 
a  measure,  this  fear  is  shared  by  the  women. 

The  seclusion  in  which  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
upper  and  middle  class  women  are  kept  has  a  reflex  ac- 

i59 


160  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

tion  on  the  women  of  the  lower  castes.  The  low- 
caste  woman,  as  well  as  her  high-born  sister,  often 
refuses  to  utter  her  husband's  name.  When  Lodhi, 
Marwarri  and  other  intermediate  caste-women  meet 
men  on  the  road,  they  will  hastily  draw  their  saris  over 
their  faces.  This  is,  in  a  small  way,  maintaining  the 
high-toned  fashion  of  purdah.  So,  the  gentle  timidity 
of  the  Brahmin,  or  Kyast  women,  percolates  down 
through  the  interlapping  and  confusing  strata  of  caste 
until  it  assumes  a  foolish  shame-facedness  in  the  low- 
caste  women  when  addressed  by  men.  Very  few 
women  consider  it  exactly  respectable  to  stand  or  sit 
in  a  congregation  of  men ;  so  that,  in  town  or  village, 
the  only  effectual  way  of  reaching  them  is  by  sending 
the  wives  of  missionaries,  or  perhaps,  best  of  all,  the 
woman  medical  missionary,  into  their  midst. 

When  a  low-caste  man  decides  to  become  a  Chris- 
tian his  wife  usually  follows  obediently,  although  un- 
taught and  unconvinced  of  the  truth  of  the  new  re- 
ligion. Accustomed  to  look  upon  their  wives  as 
slightly  better  than  chattels,  the  men  do  very  little  or 
nothing  in  the  way  of  instructing  them.  It  is  small 
wonder,  then,  that  the  women  sometimes  return  to 
idolatry,  the  religion  taught  them  by  their  mothers. 
There  is  perhaps  no  greater  need  in  India  than  of 
women  evangelists,  like  the  beloved  and  translated 
Phoebe  Rowe,  who  will  go  about  among  the  ignorant 
female  converts,  teaching  these  babes  in  Christ  how  to 
keep  themselves  from  idols.  Zenana  work  was  first 
begun  by  the  wives  of  missionaries  and  it  is  only  they 
and  their  unmarried  sisters  from  Europe  and  America 


LOWER  CASTE  WOMEN  161 

who  can  carry  it  on.  Similarly  only  women  can  reach 
the  lower-caste  women.  According  to  Rev.  Mr.  Stor- 
row,  in  the  Missionary  Review  for  April,  1900,  not 
one-fourth  of  the  715,000  villages  of  the  empire  have 
ever  known  the  presence  of  a  Christian  lady. 

If  you  will  come  with  me  into  some  of  these 
homes  you  will  get  a  much  better  idea  of  how  these 
women  live  and  how  work  is  carried  on  among 
them.  I  think,  too,  you  will  see  their  needs  more 
plainly,  pity  them  more  deeply,  and,  Better  still,  help 
them  more  intelligently. 

The  morning  is  a  lovely  one  in  the  rainy  season, 
with  air  clear  as  crystal  after  the  heavy  shower  of  the 
previous  night.  A  lovely  morning,  if  one  keeps  to 
lovely  places,  but  we  know  well  what  awaits  us  in  the 
narrow,  dirty,  maladorous  lanes  of  the  town !  We  stop 
the  ox-cart,  or  tonga,  in  the  main  street  or  bazaar  and 
go  on  foot  down  a  little  alley.  My  umbrella  touches 
the  walls  on  either  side.  As  we  approach  the  house 
we  are  to  visit  on  this  day  of  the  week  we  are  in- 
formed that  there  is  small-pox  within.  We  return  and 
enter  the  veranda  of  a  small  house,  the  front  of  which 
is  devoted  to  a  small  shop.  Baskets  of  half-spoiled 
mangoes,  a  few  fresh  corunders  (a  small  berry  resem- 
bling a  gooseberry),  and  various  grains  and  seeds  are 
here  exposed  for  sale.  The  flies  fairly  swarm.  A  lit- 
tle baby,  in  a  swing  made  of  rope  and  sacking,  is 
almost  covered  with  them.  "How  the  flies  are  biting 
that  child !"  I  say  in  Hindustani.  A  woman  throws  a 
large  soiled  cloth  over  the  naked  little  one,  face  and 
all,  saying:  "Yes,  the  flies  come  so  thickly  because 


162  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

he's  got  the  small-pox."  We  hurriedly  take  leave,  for 
the  sake  of  the  white  babies  at  home,  who  are  already 
having  a  sufficiently  severe  struggle  with  climate. 

We  enter  a  small  side  street  where  two  women,  liv- 
ing in  adjoining  houses,  have  expressed  a  desire  to 
learn  to  read  and  to  hear  the  Bible  lessons.  We  sit 
down  on  a  charpoy,  or  corded  cot,  carried  out  for  our 
accommodation.  The  women  sit  on  the  damp  ground 
in  front  of  us.  At  the  back  of  us  is  a  low  mud  wall, 
on  which,  perched  like  crows,  a  line  of  men  and  boys 
have  collected  to  listen.  One  man  eyes  us  very  sharp- 
ly, but  we  pay  no  attention.  As  the  lesson  on  the  Hindi 
alphabet  proceeds,  the  Bible-woman  suggests  the  de- 
sirability of  slates.  'Several  native  boys  run  into  dif- 
ferent mud  huts  and  reappear  with  slates  and  bits  of 
pencil.  Both  women  begin  to  write  the  characters, 
seeming  greatly  pleased  at  the  prospect  of  learning 
something.  One  woman  says  that  she  has  always 
wanted  to  learn.  The  other  explains  that  she  wishes 
to  learn  to  write  so  that  she  can  send  a  letter  of  her 
own  to  her  mother.  As  the  second  woman  speaks,  the 
sharp-eyed  man  roars  out : 

"Put  that  book  down,  and  that  slate,  too !  This  is 
enough  of  this  nonsense.  You  are  a  household 
woman.  Attend  to  your  house !  I'll  kick  you  out  of 
the  house  if  you  come  around  here  with  your  learning. 
Do  you  think  you  will  become  like  a  man?" 

The  woman  held  fast  to  her  book  and  slate  until 
we  persuaded  her  to  give  them  up,  lest  they  should  be- 
come the  occasion  of  strife.  Before  we  left,  how- 
ever, I  tried  to  impress  upon  that  very  unlordly  mascu- 


LOWER  CASTE  WOMEN  163 

line  that  the  best  housekeepers  are  the  women  who  can 
read  and  learn.  I  am  afraid  the  seed  has  fallen  upon 
stony  ground,  although  he,  as  well  as  the  members 
of  the  line  on  the  wall,  understand  all  I  say,  for  I  speak 
very  fair  Hindustani  when  I  am  indignant. 

Poor  woman!  How  disappointed  and  chagrined 
she  looked !  The  glimpse  into  the  world  of  lettters  is 
over;  the  door  of  knowledge  is  slammed  in  her  face. 
Instead  of  the  smile  and  chuckle  of  satisfaction  over 
each  laboriously  formed  letter,  returns  the  dull,  habit- 
ual expression  of  the  slave.  The  woman's  soul  has 
been  thrust  back  into  the  silence  of  ignorance,  which 
in  oriental  opinion  is  its  proper  abode. 

Returning  to  the  tonga  we  drive  some  distance  to  a 
group  of  houses  occupied  by  farm  laborers.  Here  we 
find  some  interesting  women.  The  house,  in  the  ver- 
anda of  which  we  sit,  contains  four  generations — the 
great-grandmother,  grandmother,  two  young  mothers 
and  three  children.  One  of  these  young  women  seems 
very  anxious  to  learn.  She  is  young  and  pretty  and 
she  says  she  wants  to  be  more  like  her  husband.  He 
has  just  received  a  scholarship  in  the  Patna  Medical 
College.  While  he  was  studying  here  in  the  govern- 
ment school  his  wife  became  so  anxious  to  learn  some- 
thing, too,  that  she  managed  to  take  lessons  for  a  time, 
at  very  low  fees,  from  a  Brahmin  pundit.  After  a 
time  he  said  she  needed  a  new  book,  paper  and  pencils 
and,  if  she  would  give  him  a  rupee,  he  would  get  them. 
She  could  not  persuade  the  family  to  give  her  the 
rupee.  The  pundit  threatened  to  stop  the  lessons,  so  in 
her  desperation  she  stole  the  rupee  from  the  house  and 


i64  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

then  was  only  rewarded  by  the  pundit's  absconding 
without  giving  her  a  book  or  another  lesson.  The  fam- 
ily were  vexed  about  the  rupee  and  stopped  her  lessons 
for  a  year.  Some  of  this  family  were  assisted  with 
work  during  the  famine  of  1897  and  that  gave  them 
some  confidence  in  the  Christians ;  so  we  have  permis- 
sion to  teach  this  woman  and  three  of  her  neighbors, 
who  have  become  ambitious  through  her  example. 

Another  morning  go  with  me  and  my  helpers  to 
visit  some  sweeper  and  Basor  families.  We  set  a  spe- 
cial day  aside  for  visiting  these  people,  as  we  may  not 
go  from  the  out  caste  houses  into  any  Hindu  or  Moham- 
medan dwellings,  unless  we  have  previously  gone  home 
and  bathed  and  changed  our  clothing.  These  people 
seem  indeed  out-castes  and  forlorn.  The  sweepers  are 
the  scavengers  and  clean  away  all  sorts  of  refuse  and 
filth.  Most  of  them  have  a  disagreeable  odor  about 
them,  and  usually  live  in  the  most  disagreeable  and  un- 
wholesome parts  of  the  town  and  villages  or,  very 
often,  outside  of  the  town  limits  altogether.  The 
Basors,  at  least  in  this  part  of  India,  seem  a  more 
degraded  people  than  the  sweepers,  and  live  more 
filthily.  The  houses  are  mud  or  grass  huts.  We  crawl 
under  a  sort  of  veranda,  not  four  feet  high,  and  take 
our  seats  on  the  mud  floor.  Near  our  feet  two  or 
three  frightful  black  Indian  hogs  are  wallowing.  One 
of  the  women  is  cleaning  wheat  and  two  others  are 
grinding  at  the  mill.  A  few  from  neighboring  huts 
come  up  as  we  sing.  As  we  read  and  explain,  the 
women  often  interrupt  by  quarreling  with  one  another 


A   GROUP   OF   SWEEPERS. 
Tenth    Chapter. 


LOWER  CASTE  WOMEN  165 

or  throwing  stones  at  pigs  and  goats.  We  wonder, 
as  we  close  the  book,  if  we  have  not  in  a  double  sense 
been  casting  our  pearls  before  swine. 

But  a  leper  woman,  standing  as  near  as  she  dared, 
has  heard  of  the  healing  of  the  "ten."  Another  woman 
says  that  this  visit  is  her  one  joy,  and  she  repeats  over 
and  over  in  Hindi  the  sweet  words  of  John  3 :  16,  so  as 
to  be  able  to  say  them  by  herself.  She  can  only  repeat, 
without  prompting,  "For  God  so  loved."  As  we  think 
of  this  ignorant  seeker  and  the  poor  leper  we  try  to  for- 
get the  swarms  of  flies,  the  heat  and  the  sickening 
sights  that  we  cannot  even  write  about,  and  return  to 
the  mission-house,  unable  to  eat  the  late  breakfast  after 
the  experience  of  the  morning,  and  thinking  sadly  of 
the  needs  of  the  poor  and  ignorant  about  us.  Many 
writers  concerning  India  note  the  erect  carriage  and 
fine  appearance  of  the  coolie  women.  It  is  true  that 
the  custom  of  carrying  head  loads  conduces  to  an  erect 
bearing,  but  there  is  very  little  beauty  to  be  observed 
among  the  lower  classes.  Some  of  the  children  are 
naturally  pretty,  but  most  so  neglected  that  they  have 
no  chance  to  be  attractive.  In  the  mission-schools  you 
will  see  many  interesting  and  some  even  beautiful  faces 
belonging  to  the  lower  castes,  but  here  there  is  care, 
proper  food,  instruction  and  love.  The  only  conspic- 
uous beauty  I  have  seen  in  India  is  among  the  higher 
classes.  Here,  again,  many  otherwise  pretty  faces,  as 
regards  form  and  color,  are  spoiled  by  the  dull  expres- 
sion of  ignorance  or  of  those  imprisoned.  The  most 
beautiful  woman  that  I  have  ever  seen,  however,  is  in 
India.     She  is  a  fair  Bengali  and  has  been  quite  well 


i66  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

educated  in  a  mission  school.  She  was  lately  married 
and,  although  her  father  is  a  professional  man  and 
calls  himself  a  Christian,  he  married  his  daughter  to  a 
caste-man  and  she  will  pass  her  days  in  the  dull  zenana. 
Her  beauty,  which  would  grace  a  court,  and  her  intel- 
lect are  hid  away  forever. 

A  French  lecturer,  in  speaking  of  the  condition  of 
the  American  women,  said  that  if  transmigration  were 
true  and  he  had  the  opportunity  of  asking  the  fates 
what  his  condition  should  be  when  he  should  return  to 
this  world,  he  would  shout  and  plead  with  all  his 
power :  "Oh !  make  me  an  American  woman !"  So,  on 
the  contrary,  if  I  had  the  privilege  of  asking  what  fate 
of  all  others  I  would  avoid,  I  should  say  to  be  born  in 
India  and  a  woman ! 


CHAPTER  XI. 
FAMINE. 

During  the  ten  years  we  have  lived  in  India  we 
have  witnessed  the  ravages  of  two  famines.  The  one  in 
1896-97  was  extremely  severe  in  Central  India,  and  our 
station,  Narsinghpur,  was  one  of  the  four  places  most 
afflicted.  To  a  person  in  Western  lands  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  convey  an  adequate  idea  of  an  Indian  fam- 
ine. At  the  best  of  times  there  are  so  many  wretchedly 
poor  people  that,  to  a  newcomer  from  America,  it 
would  seem  to  be  always  famine  here.  Thousands 
upon  thousands — nay,  even  millions  in  India  never  eat 
more  than  one  poor  meal  a  day.  Let  the  crops  fail  for 
two  seasons,  as  in  1893-96  and  gaunt  famine  stalks  over 
the  land.  The  old  and  infirm  die,  the  able-bodied  walk 
long  distances  to  obtain  work  and  the  dead  and  dying 
are  everywhere.  The  numbers  afflicted  are  so  vast  that 
thousands  of  helping  hands  are  needed  to  save  even  a 
small  portion  of  the  afflicted.  Orphans  swarm  in  the 
bazaar  and  beg  piteously  for  bread,  while  shut-in  high 
caste,  but  poverty-stricken  women  die  quietly  rather 
than  venture  forth. 

In  1896  prices  of  foodstuffs  rose  higher  and  higher; 
beggars  increased ;  there  was  no  work  in  the  fields  and 
soon  people  began  to  come  in  from  remote  villages  to 
the  official  centers  of  districts,  hoping  the  sirkar  (gov- 
ernment) would  help  them.     The  distress  increased, 

167 


1 68  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

till  one  day  we  were  startled  by  a  mother  offering  to 
sell  two  children.  Such  propositions,  however,  soon  be- 
came common.  In  some  cases  hunger  seemed  to  kill 
every  tender  feeling.  The  people  became  ravenous  and 
would  take  the  food  that  the  children  found  or  begged 
and  eat  it  themselves.  In  the  last  famine  at  Aligarh  the 
missionaries  were  obliged  to  separate  the  children  from 
the  mothers  or  the  latter  would  take  the  children's  por- 
tion of  food  and  eat  it  themselves.  In  many,  many 
cases,  however,  the  maternal  and  paternal  love  and  care 
overcame  hunger,  cold  and  suffering,  and  the  last 
morsel  was  given  to  the  children.  I  shall  never  forget 
a  Mohammedan  father  who  gave  his  son  to  us  to  care 
for  in  the  mission.  The  man  had  been  a  small  farmer, 
but  there  was  nothing  in  his  little  fields.  First  he  sold 
the  land  for  food  •  then  his  hut ;  then  the  cooking  ves- 
sels, then  he  and  his  wife  and  two  boys,  one  a  baby, 
started  forth,  they  knew  not  whither.  The  man 
brought  the  boy  to  us,  telling  the  child  he  could  care 
for  him  no  longer,  although  he  had  always  hoped  to 
send  him  to  school,  but  that  now  he  saw  no  way  to  save 
his  life  and  educate  him  other  than  to  give  him  away. 
The  boy  was  not  to  think  his  father  did  not  love  him, 
and,  if  he  lived  and  learned  how  to  write,  he  was  charged 
to  write  to  his  parents.  The  father  bade  him  good- 
bye and,  asking  nothing  for  himself,  went  away.  At 
that  time  government  was  doing  nothing  to  relieve  the 
poor.  Some  months  afterwards,  poorhouses  or  sheds 
were  opened  and  relief-works  begun.  In  the  poorhouse 
here  we  saw  the  poor  Mohammedan  father,  and  there 
he  died.     The  little    son    is  doing  well  in  one  of  the 


FAMINE  169 

mission-schools.  The  mother  and  baby  no  doubt  per- 
ished. During  the  cold  season  it  had  been  my  custom 
to  take  morning  walks.  Often  I  found  dead  or  dying 
men  and  women  under  trees.  The  throngs  of  those 
begging  for  bread  increased  so  rapidly  that  it  be- 
came impossible  to  stir  outside  for  recuperation  during 
those  trying  times  of  rescue-work.  We  began  giving 
out  a  pice  to  each,  but  could  not  continue 'this.  By 
private  subscription  a  sort  of  kitchen  was  built  and 
here  the  poor  famine-stricken  received  one  meal  a  day 
of  coarse,  cheap  food.  Many  who  had  come  in  from 
the  villages  were  old  and  decrepit  and  often  crawled 
along  the  roads  for  miles.  These  aged  people  and  the 
children  could  not  masticate  the  food  given,  so  we  had 
prepared  in  our  own  cookhouse  some  thin  gruel  which 
we  mixed  with  milk.  As  the  huge  kettle  was  carried  to 
the  kitchen  twice1  a  day,  the  oldest  and  youngest,  many 
barely  able  to  crawl,  would  gather  around  the  great 
vessel  holding  out  bits  of  earthen  dishes,  old  tin  cans  or 
anything  they  had,  to  receive  some  of  the  warm  gruel. 
So  it  went  on.  Children  were  being  gathered  in  and 
the  sick  doctored  and  soon  we  had  under  our  own  di- 
rection three  hundred  on  relief-work  and  as  many  more 
receiving  help — corn  sent  in  the  good  ship  from 
America  and  clothing  from  England.  My  husband 
was  out,  both  in  the  cold  and  hot  seasons,  overseeing 
relief-workers,  helping  on  the  poorhouse  committee, 
distributing  grain  to  many  others  besides  the  seven 
hundred  receiving  constant  assistance  and  giving  out 
seed  to  farmers  unable  to  sow  without  help.    The  of- 


170  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

ficials  gave  me  clothing  to  distribute,  as  my  zenana 
work  made  me  acquainted  with  many  homes  where 
men  could  not  go  to  inquire  the  needs. 

Our  mission-school  of  forty  or  fifty  boys  soon 
increased  to  sixty-five,  and  then  we  were  full.  We 
rescued  almost  one  thousand  children  in  our  own  com- 
pound and  sent  detachments  to  the  various  schools  that 
asked  for  them.  We  looked  for  a  more  commodious 
place  in  order  to  enlarge  our  school  and  keep  the 
children  in  their  own  part  of  the  country.  A  strong, 
beautiful  building  stood  nearly  opposite  our  humble 
school  and  meeting-place.  It  was  called  the  "palace" 
or,  in  Hindustani,  the  mahal.  It  belonged  to  a  petty 
rajah,  who  lived  some  miles  away  on  his  estate.  He  did 
not  seem  to  care  to  live  in  his  town-house,  and  the 
building  had  been  used  for  a  government  office.  The 
story  is  too  long  to  tell,  but  suffice  it  to  say  that  the 
building  became  the  property  of  the  mission,  and,  by 
the  aid  of  relief-workers  it  was  altered  somewhat,  ad- 
ditional buildings  erected,  and  now  it  accommodates 
two  hundred  and  sixty  orphan  boys,  all  supported  by 
Christian  people  in  America  and  England. 

Throughout  all  India  you  may  find  these  full 
schools  of  boys  and  girls  being  taught  and  trained  to 
become  useful  citizens,  and,  we  trust,  noble  Christians 
as  well.  During  the  years  when  the  harvest  failed  in 
the  fields  and  the  orchards  refused  to  give  fruit,  this 
harvest  of  boys  and  girls  was  gathered  in,  and  we  be- 
lieve the  fruit  of  these  schools  will  enrich  India  for 
centuries. 


FAMINE  171 

During  all  the  months  of  famine  the  labors  of  mis- 
sionaries were  greatly  increased.  Some  succumbed  to 
the  strain  and  yielded  up  their  lives  in  the  rescue-work. 
Starvation  was  not  the  only  horror,  for  there  were 
many  loathsome  diseases  which  were  the  result  of  bad 
and  insufficient  food.  Many  people  ate  leaves,  grass 
seeds  and  weeds.  Some  were  even  seen  to  sort  out 
undigested  grain  from  the  manure  of  animals.  Dysen- 
tery, diarrhea,  cancrum-oris  or  famine  sore-mouth, 
rickets  and  ulcers  were  all  about  us.  We  used  quarts 
of  salve  and  ointment,  besides  other  remedies ;  still  the 
death-rate  was  very  high.  Nearly  all  the  cases  of  can- 
crum-oris  proved  fatal,  but  we  have  a  fine  looking 
Brahmin  boy  who  survived  the  agonies  of  this  disease 
and  is  now  a  healthy  lad,  full  of  fun  and  mischief  and 
learning  well  at  school.  His  teeth  were  loose  in  his 
jaws  and  he  used  to  beg  me  to  have  them  all  out,  so 
they  would  not  pain  him  so  badly. 

The  suffering  during  a  famine  cannot  be  fully  de- 
scribed. The  home  papers  were  full  of  pictures  and 
accounts,  and  generous  friends  sent  money  and  food 
and  thousands  were  saved.  But  oh! — the  thousands 
who  suffered  and  died ! 

During  the  famine  of  1900  cholera  and  plague 
added  their  terrors  in  the  same  districts  where  the 
severe  scarcity  prevailed.  In  the  other  famine,  plague 
was  raging;  but  not  in  those  parts  of  the  country  de- 
vastated by  famine.  The  missionaries  assisted  nobly 
in  caring  for  the  sick  and  disposing  of  the  dead.  This 
latter  task  Hindus  and  Mohammedans  fled  from.  One 
missionary  personally     superintended  the  burning  of 


\72  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

seven  thousand  bodies  of  those  who  had  died  of  cholera 
and  starvation,  and  indirectly  assisted  at  four  thousand 
more  burnings.  Sometimes  in  this  work  he  found  liv- 
ing people  being  carried  off  in  the  carts  with  the 
corpses.  The  stolid  driver,  on  being  expostulated  with, 
merely  replied  that  they  would  be  dead  in  a  few  hours 
and,  by  taking  them  now,  he  would  be  saved  another 
trip.  Sometimes  a  little  muscular  Christianity  was 
necessary  to  make  the  man  give  up  his  living  freight. 

This  sounds  too  horrible  for  belief,  but  I  heard  the 
missionary  tell  the  incident  myself.  Not  less  awful 
was  the  shameless  cheating  that  went  on  in  many  of 
the  relief-camps.  When  millions  are  to  be  helped  the 
work  must  be  subdivided  many  times.  Some  of  the 
inferior  officials  who  had  charge  of  the  kitchens  mixed 
fine  earth  with  the  flour  in  order  to  keep  back  part  of 
the  amount  allowed;  many  gave  much  less  than  the 
regular  allowance;  milk  was  watered  and  other  tricks 
resorted  to  in  order  to  make  profit  over  and  above  their 
wages.  Accustomed  to  look  upon  the  low-caste  and 
the  poor  as  the  rightful  prey  of  those  in  power,  these 
men  could  easily  extend  this  doctrine  until  they  were 
ready  to  seek  their  own  advantage  at  the  expense  of 
the  lives  of  some  of  their  own  caste  people. 

Unnecessary  fines  were  imposed  upon  relief-workers 
and  never  reported,  the  sums  thus  gained  finding  their 
way  into  the  pockets  of  overseers.  Some  of  these 
shameless  officials  afterwards  actually  referred  to  their 
gains.  In  Galveston,  Texas,  martial  law  was  proclaim- 
ed at  the  time  of  the  awful  flood.  Human  ghouls  found 
pillaging  were  shot  down — but  who  was  to  detect  these 


FAMINE  173 

clever  swindlers?  The  poor,  famished  relief-workers 
were  afraid  to  breathe  a  complaint  lest  they  should 
lose  the  pittance  they  were  receiving.  If,  by  accident, 
injustice  had  been  discovered,  prosecution  would  have 
been  almost  impossible,  for  the  wretched  wronged 
ones  themselves  would  have  been  too  timid  to  witness 
against  their  oppressors. 

What,  to  such  men,  were  the  lives  of  their  poor  fel- 
low-creatures ?  Mahatmas  and  Sadhus  and  all  their 
followers  know  nothing  of  extending  the  helping  hand 
to  a  brother  in  need.  Nay,  they  do  not  comprehend  the 
doctrine  of  brotherhood. 

Perhaps  the  most  heartrending  sight  seen  during 
the  famine  was  that  of  a  little  baby  trying  to  draw 
nourishment  from  a  dead  mother's  breast.  Yet  there 
were  even  more  heartrending  things  to  know  about. 
When  mothers  offered  little  girls  for  sale,  and  one 
dared  not  do  such  an  illegal  thing  as  buy  them,  we 
knew  some  wicked  person  would  nevertheless  purchase 
them  for  immoral  purposes.  One  mother  tried  to  per- 
suade me  to  promise  three  rupees  for  a  beautiful  little 
girl.  I  did  all  I  could  to  induce  her  to  give  her  child 
to  me,  intending  to  assist  her  afterwards,  but  I  dared 
not  bargain  for  it. 

"What  would  you  do  with  the  three  rupees?"  I 
asked  the  woman. 

"Why,  eat  all  I  wanted  for  two  or  three  days  and 
then  go  drown  myself  in  a  well/'  she  said. 

A  wealthy  Mohammedan  bought  the  child,  and  the 
mother  kept  her  word. 


174  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

The  Hindus  and  the  Mohammedans  do  not  enjoy 
seeing  the  children  gathered  into  the  Christian  orphan- 
ages. Unwilling  themselves  to  stretch  forth  a  helping 
hand,  they  dislike  to  see  the  children  cared  for  by 
Christians,  knowing  full  well  what  such  aid  means  for 
the  future.  One  native  official  had  been  told  by  the 
highest  English  authority  in  the  district  to  give  forty 
boys  and  girls  from  the  poorhouse  to  a  missionary  who 
had  asked  for  them,  provided  the  children  wished  to 
go.  He  tried  to  forstall  the  missionary  by  asking  each 
Hindu  child,  in  an  undertone,  "Do  you  wish  to  go  with 
the  Padre  and  eat  cow  meat  ?"  But  to  a  Mohammedan 
boy  or  girl  the  crafty  fellow  would  say :  "Do  you  wish 
to  go  and  eat  pork  ?"  In  this  way  he  succeeded  in  in- 
timidating some. 

Many  stories  were  circulated  intended  to  terrify  the 
people  and  excite  them  against  the  Christians.  Some 
were  actually  made  to  believe  that  the  missionaries 
took  out  the  children's  eyes  to  make  medicine  from 
them.  Doing  nothing,  and  caring  not  at  all  themselves, 
they  would  fain  prevent  the  missionaries  also  in  the 
work  of  rescue.  Many  widows  and  deserted  wives 
were  taken  in  and  given  homes  and  taught  some  use- 
ful employment.  Thousands  of  homes  were  broken 
up  and  villages  deserted.  The  very  landscape  tells  the 
story  of  desolation.  Beautiful  trees  have  fallen  or 
stand  bare  and  dead  in  the  path  of  gaunt  famine. 
Gujerat,  called  one  of  the  garden-spots  of  India,  is  a 
dried  and  bleak-looking  waste. 

Thousands  are  praying,  some  to  dumb  idols  of  wood 
and  stone,  some  to  the  living  God,  that  the  early  and 


■3* 

M  2^ 


FAMINE  175 

the  later  rains  may  not  fail  again  and  that  India  may 
never  more  be  visited  by  this  awful  affliction.  Many 
say  it  is  because  of  India's  gross  wickedness  that  she 
suffers  thus.  But  oh ! — the  little  children,  the  young, 
young  children  crying  for  bread !  May  a  merciful  God 
stay  this  sore  affliction! 

STARVATION  IN  THE  ZENANAS. 

Most  people  suppose  that  all  the  "purdah  women" 
— that  is,  high-caste  women  who  are  shut-in  or  se- 
cluded— must  be  well-to-do.  This  is  a  mistake.  A 
beggar  may  be  a  Brahmin,  who,  while  asking  an  alms 
of  you,  yet  religiously  despises  you  as  the  off-scouring 
of  the  earth.  Moneyed  aristocracy  has  no  place  here. 
A  man  may  amass  a  fortune  and  live  like  a  prince,  but 
if  born  low-caste  he  is  still  low-caste.  In  a  little  hovel, 
screened  from  view  by  a  coarse  piece  of  sacking  hung 
in  the  doorway,  may  live  a  high-caste  woman,  "born  to 
the  purple"  in  Hindu  society,  but  so  poor  that  she  is 
wasted  to  skin  and  bone  from  lack  of  food.  Such  a 
one  said  to  me : 

"One  meal  a  day  of  plain  rice,  Mem  Sahib,  and 
often  not  that.  My  husband  has  no  work  since  the 
famine  and  my  little  baby  died  because  I  had  no  milk 
to  give  it." 

Another  asked  us  to  talk  to  her  from  behind  a 
door.  "I  am  nearly  naked,  Mem  Sahib.  All  the 
clothes  have  been  sold  to  buy  food.  The  stomach  can- 
not go  empty,  even  if  the  back  must  go  bare." 

When  I  took  the  clothing  sent  from  England  for 
these  women  some  even  cried  with  joy,  they  felt  so  bit- 


176  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

terly  ashamed  to  be  seen  in  the  rags  to  which  they  were 
reduced.  To  carry  grain  to  these  homes  was  very 
hard  work.  Some  was  given  out  by  government ;  but, 
considering  the  difficulty  of  men  finding  out  the  con- 
dition of  these  secluded  women,  you  will  see  how  hard 
it  was  to  reach  them  with  help.  Only  women  could 
really  do  this  work.  In  the  stress  of  famine  many 
were  allowed  to  go  out  of  their  homes,  provided  they 
went  where  women  only  were  to  be  seen.  Knowing 
this,  two  of  us  made  the  attempt  to  give  out  American 
grain  in  the  back  yard  of  one  of  my  Bible-women's 
houses.  We  let  in  a  few  at  a  time  and  measured  to 
each  a  certain  number  of  quarts  of  corn  and  beans. 
We  soon  realized  the  difficulty  of  dealing  with  the  poor, 
famished  creatures.  We  could  not  let  them  out  again 
until  all  had  been  served  and  what  a  scene  of  confusion 
that  little  muddy  yard  presented!  The  struggles  at 
the  gate  to  get  in  were  bad  enough  and,  doubtless,  we 
pinched  many  poor  fingers  badly  as  we  shut  the  gate 
after  each  detachment  of  ten  entered.  Then,  if  any 
grain  fell,  who  could  prevent  the  scramble  for  every 
kernel?  It  was  pitiful,  indeed !  By  evening  we  as  well 
as  the  Bible-women  were  almost  overdone  by  the  labor 
and  confusion.  Among  this  seething  mass  there  were 
few  of  the  highest  castes.  Many  never  complained. 
Their  honor,  religion  and  future  life  depend  on  the 
strict  observance  of  caste.  To  go  on  the  government 
relief-work,  or  worse  still,  to  be  fed  in  the  poorhouse, 
meant  the  loss  of  all;  so,  far  better  to  die  and  keep 
everything  precious  but  life !  Even  without  the  terrors 
of  caste  before  our  eyes,  most  of  us  would  prefer  to 


.    FAMINE  177 

die  rather  than  to  be  fed  in  the  government  poorsheds, 
among  the  sick,  the  halt,  the  blind,  the  filthy  and  dis- 
eased. Some  respectable  people  were  there,  but  re- 
spectability was  no  longer  to  be  distinguished,  so 
wretched  had  they  all  become. 

Many  temptations  were  in  the  way  of  the  sufferers. 
A  Mohammedan  woman  of  the  upper  class  was  left  a 
widow  at  this  time.  She  had  no  means  of  support ;  she 
could  not  go  out  to  work ;  she  did  not  know  how  to  do 
sewing  even  if  any  could  have  been  procured  for  her. 
She  told  us  that  she  wanted  to  live  only  with  her  chil- 
dren, but  what  was  she  to  do?  A  relative  of  her  hus- 
band's sent  her  word  to  come  to  his  house  as  the  third 
of  his  living  wives.  This  meant  protection,  food,  and 
clothing  for  herself  and  little  ones  and  respectability  in 
Mohammedan  society.  So  she  went  to  the  strange 
town  in  her  long  veil  and  entered  the  house  as  another 
downtrodden  moslem  concubine. 

After  money  came  for  helping  these  women  some 
were  taught  to  sew  and  coarse  work  was  cut  out  and 
given  to  them  from  many  mission-centers.  It  was  a 
tedious  task  to  teach  these  unaccustomed  fingers  to  do 
even  plain  sewing  and  most  of  the  lessons  had  to  be 
given  in  their  homes,  in  close,  dingy  quarters,  and  often 
in  stifling  heat. 

When  clothing  was  distributed  the  applicants,  who 
on  the  ground  of  poverty  had  equal  claims,  were  so 
numerous  that  it  was  very  hard  to  decide  where  to  be- 
stow one's  gifts.  Most  of  the  women  in  these  shut-in 
houses  live  at  best  in  very  rough  and  barren  rooms, 
with  neither  chairs  nor  tables — or  at  best,  one  unpaint- 


178  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

ed  one — no  pictures  on  the  walls  and  no  carpets  on  the 
mud  floors.  There  are  only  one  or  two  beds,  called 
charpoys,  with  coarsely  woven  rope  across  and  the 
wooden  part  consisting  of  four  poles  and  four  posts. 
A  few  cooking-vessels  and  a  rough  brick  or  mud  stove 
complete  her  possessions,  with  the  addition  of  a  wooden 
box  containing  a  little  clothing  and  a  smaller  one  for 
the  few  trinkets  she  possesses.  This  is  in  prosperous 
time.  But  when  famine  stalks  abroad  and  grainstuffs 
double  and  treble  in  price,  the  little  earnings  of  the 
father  and  sons  are  insufficient  to  keep  the  wolf  from 
the  door  of  the  little  hut.  Often  employment  fails  al- 
together and  the  men  wander  away  to  new  towns  in 
search  of  work,  while  the  women  sit  at  home  and  wait, 
bake  their  last  loaf,  drain  the  last  drop  of  oil  from  the 
cruse,  and  then  lie  down  and  die.  The  little  ones  wan- 
der aimlessly  forth  to  beg  or  die  or  sometimes  to  be 
rescued  by  missionaries.  People  in  America  often  say : 
"Is  famine  really  so  bad  as  represented?"  Far,  far 
worse  than  any  pen  can  describe !  Abstain  from  food 
for  two  whole  days ;  drink  muddy  ditch-water ;  eat  de- 
caying vegetables;  pick  up  grain  around  a  barnyard 
and  then,  on  the  fifth  or  sixth  day,  write  your  exper- 
iences !  As  bad  as  represented  ?  Men  and  women  and 
little  children  die  by  the  roadside  and  under  trees ;  par- 
ents sell  their  babies;  women  leap  into  wells  and 
Satan's  emissaries  profit  by  saving  from  starvation  the 
prettiest  of  the  little  orphan  girls.  Is  all  this  as  bad 
as  represented?  Can  anything  be  worse  except  war, 
rapine  and  murder?  And  are  these  really  worse,  or 
only  speedier  in  their  results? 


r> 


FAMINE  179 

The  only  relief  to  this  dark  picture  of  famine  among 
the  low  and  the  high  is  the  grand  opportunity  it  affords 
missionaries  to  train  thousands  of  orphans  thus  thrust 
upon  them.  Some  are  educated  to  be  teachers  and 
preachers,  but  the  majority  are  taught  useful  trades 
and  employments,  while  the  girls  are  prepared  to  be 
housewives  and  intelligent  companions  of  Christian 
men.  But  the  greatest  opportunity  is  that  of  guiding 
so  many  during  their  impressionable  years  to  the  true 
light  and  life  of  men.  It  is  not  enough  merely  to  save 
the  perishing  bodies,  but  the  bread  of  life  must  be  fed 
to  hungry  souls,  thus  to  raise  up  an  industrious,  God- 
fearing community,  which  may  do  much  to  bring  pros- 
perity to  overcrowded,  poverty-stricken  India.  May 
it  not  be  that  out  of  the  darkness  of  woe  and  famine 
shall  shine  the  true  "Light  of  Asia  ?" 


CHAPTER  XII. 
A  COUNTRY  WEDDING  IN  INDIA. 

While  on  a  preaching  tour  in  the  villages  my  hus- 
band had  the  opportunity  of  attending  a  country  wed- 
ding and  finding  out  all  the  modus  operandi  of  mar- 
riage arrangements  among  these  people.  The  son  of 
the  Patel  (headman  of  the  village)  was  the  child- 
groom  and  the  little  bride  belonged  to  a  neighboring 
village.  Seven  dinners  were  given  in  connection  with 
the  great  event.  At  one  of  these  my  husband  was  a 
guest.  The  company  seated  numbered  three  hundred. 
All  ate  from  plates  made  of  leaves  pinned  together 
with  little  sticks  or  thorns.  The  food  was  rice,  cooked 
with  spices  and  served  with  curry — a  sort  of  stew,  with 
very  hot  and  varied  seasoning.  All  ate  with  their 
fingers. 

The  boy  was  about  nine  years  of  age,  and  of 
course,  it  was  time  to  get  him  married.  So,  some 
months  previous  to  this,  his  father  began  the  prelimi- 
nary arrangements,  or  the  courtship  by  proxy.  He 
went  about  the  various  villages,  apparently  on  business, 
but  really  to  spy  out  a  suitable  bride  for  his  promising 
son.  He  saw  many  little  girls  playing  about,  and, 
while  apparently  talking  of  the  weather,  the  crops  and 
•what  not,  he  kept  a  sharp  lookout  on  the  little  maids. 
Some  were  not  pretty  enough;  some  did  not  appear 
sufficiently  bright;  some  were  not  of  his  caste;  some 

180 


A  COUNTRY  WEDDING  IN  INDIA     181 

were  of  his  caste,  pretty  and  intelligent,  but  of  fami- 
lies not  high  enough  in  social  circles,  nor  possessed  of 
sufficient  wealth.  Finally  in  a  village  a  mile  away,  he 
saw  a  little  girl,  five  years  old,  who  seemed  to  satisfy 
the  conditions.  Her  father  was  in  proper  standing 
and  had  some  property.  Then  followed  the  usual  series 
of  formalities.  The  boy's  father,  without  saying  a 
word  about  marriage,  slips  away  to  his  home,  and,  gath- 
ering together  a  few  of  his  near  relatives,  opens  his 
mind  to  them.  They  discuss  the  matter  and  approve. 
(Should  they  disapprove  the  matter  is  settled  for  that 
girl.)  The  Panchayat,  or  council  of  five,  of  that  par- 
ticular caste  are  then  called  together.  If  they  disap- 
prove, this  again  stops  all  proceedings.  With  their 
sanction,  the  Brahmin  soothsayer  is  summoned.  He 
also  has  the  power  to  terminate  the  affair  by  declaring 
the  stars  unfavorable.  The  Brahmin  reads  something 
from  a  book.  No  one  understands  it  and  he  will  allow 
none  to  see  the  page.  If  the  report  of  the  stars  is 
favorable,  he  says:  "Yes,  all  is  propitious,  Anoint  the 
boy  and  girl  on  a  certain  day,  and  on  certain  other 
days,  give  such  and  such  dinners."  Then  he  takes  his 
fee  and  departs.  Next  the  father  of  the  boy  calls  the 
barber  of  the  village  and  sends  him  to  the  parents  of 
the  girl.  He  states  the  case  thus :  The  boy's  parents  are 
willing,  relatives  approve,  Panchayat  and  Brahmin  and 
the  stars  all  agree.  All  then  proceed  to  discuss  the 
matter,  the  barber  extolling  the  boy  and  his  relatives. 
If  the  girl's  parents  consent  the  marriage  arrangements 
proceed.     If  they  withhold  their  approval  the  matter 


182  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

ends.  The  girl's  parents  have  the  same  privilege  as 
those  of  the  boy  to  take  the  initiative  in  the  whole  pro- 
ceeding. 

The  barber  returns  in  great  glee  if  he  has  secured 
the  consent  of  the  girl's  parents.  The  news  is  spread 
and  everything  considered  settled.  When  the  anoint- 
ing day  arrives  the  barber  goes  to  the  boy's  house  and, 
removing  his  clothes,  with  the  assistance  of  near  rela- 
tives, anoints  him  with  oil  and  haldi  (turmeric)  and 
then  gives  him  a  bath.  New  clothes  are  put  on  the  boy, 
while  the  barber  keeps  the  old  ones  as  his  perquisites. 
The  anointing  is  repeated  in  the  evening  by  the  same 
people,  but  this  time  it  is  not  followed  by  a  bath.  The 
boy  sleeps  in  the  oil  and  haldi.  In  the  morning  an- 
other anointing  occurs  and  a  second  bath. 

Now  comes  the  planting  of  the  post.  First,  four 
posts  of  any  kind  are  set  in  the  ground,  at  any  desired 
distance  apart ;  but  so  as  to  make  a  square.  Over  the 
top  cross-poles  a  covering  of  leaves  and  branches  is 
placed.  Under  this  is  planted  the  special  post,  often 
carved  and  colored  in  various  tints,  especially  red  or 
green.  The  boy  has  a  thin  post ;  the  girl,  at  her  home, 
a  thick  one.  This  post  is  set  by  the  boy's  father,  and 
the  father's  sister's  husband.  In  the  evening  a  small 
khana  or  dinner  is  given  to  a  few  near  relatives.  Simi- 
lar anointing,  bathing  and  post-planting  is  also  going 
on  at  the  girl's  house,  conducted  by  the  wife  of  the 
barber  of  her  village  and  the  relatives. 

The  third  day  arrives  and  great  preparations  are 
made  at  the  boy's  house  for  the  evening  khana.  Many 
J>road  plates,  made  of  leaves  pinned  together  with  bits 


A  COUNTRY  WEDDING  IN  INDIA     183 

of  wood,  and  little  bowls  constructed  in  the  same  way, 
are  gathered  in,  which  have  been  prepared  by  the  bar- 
ber's wife.  Large  baskets,  too,  from  which  to  dis- 
tribute the  khana,  pallao,  curry,  greens  and  sweet- 
meats are  being  made  ready.  Toward  evening  guests 
from  other  villages  begin  to  arrive  and  stop  at  various 
houses.  This  wedding  was  among  the  Kirar  caste,  to 
which  nearly  the  entire  population  of  the  village  of 
Kairua  belongs.  These  have  all  been  invited  some 
days  previously  by  the  barber's  wife,  through  whom  all 
invitations  must  be  sent.  At  about  6  p.  m.  this  same 
important  personage  passed  around  the  village  saying : 
"Khana  taiyar  hai."  (The  dinner  is  ready.)  The  peo- 
ple began  to  straggle  leisurely  along.  Some  remained 
talking;  some  finished  their  milking,  or  other  work. 
There  is  no  hurry,  for  they  know  that  not  all  can  sit 
down  at  once. 

The  ubiquitous  barber's  wife  had  invited  the  one 
Christian  family  there,  and  my  husband  and  the  native 
preachers  with  him,  to  come  to  the  dinner.  They  re- 
plied that  they  should  be  glad  to  do  so,  provided  no 
filthy  songs  were  sung  and  no  obscene  conversation  in- 
dulged in.  These  people  think,  if  these  so-called  wed- 
ding songs  are  not  sung,  and  this  vulgar  talk  carried 
on,  that  the  wedding  is  not  at  all  a  success. 

About  8  o'clock  the  boy's  uncle  came  to  call  the 
party  of  Christians.  He  said:  "I  have  ordered  all 
singing  and  filthy  talking  stopped  while  you  are  pres- 
ent." They  went  with  him  and  everything  was  pro- 
priety itself.  The  Sahib  was  served  first,  afterwards 
the  native  Christians.    They  gave  the  Sahib  a  little 


n84  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

stool  to  sit  on,  but  all  the  other  guests  had  been  seated 
on  the  ground.  The  food  was  disposed  of  with  the 
aid  of  fingers  only.  The  dinner  was  cold  and  served 
outside  the  house  under  the  stars  by  the  light  of  a 
few  small  flickering  lamps.  The  men  of  the  company 
had  eaten  before  my  husband  arrived ;  the  women  were 
yet  to  eat.  After  a  half-hour's  chat  the  little  company 
retired,  leaving  the  wedding-party  to  complete  their 
ceremonies.  With  their  departure  the  singing  and 
usual  talking  began,  but  in  a  subdued  way.  A  new 
idea  had  been  received. 

After  the  women  had  eaten,  the  near  relatives  of 
the  boy's  mother  gave  her  a  new  suit  of  clothes. 
Neither  the  girl-bride  nor  her  parents  attend  the  var- 
ious khanas  at  the  boy's  house,  but  other  relatives  of 
the  girl  attend.  At  the  time  of  this  big  khana  a  little 
khana  at  the  girl's  house  was  given  to  near  relatives, 
and  her  mother  also  received  a  new  suit  of  clothes. 
About  4  o'clock  in  the  morning,  after  the  great 
dinner,  the  crowd,  including  the  boy  and  his  parents, 
left  for  Kacharkona,  the  village  of  the  bride.  The 
bride  received  a  gift  of  about  250  rupees'  worth  of 
jewelry  from  her  father-in-law.  Fireworks  were  dis- 
charged and  there  was  singing,  conversation  and  sleep 
until  about  noon,  when  the  guests  were  again  sum- 
moned to  a  meal.  Nearly  all  bathed  and  then  sat  down 
to  a  great  feast.  In  the  evening  there  was  another 
khana,  followed  by  the  real  marriage  ceremony.  The 
boy  and  girl  were  seated  side  by  side,  the  girl  on  the 
right.     Then  the  girl's  father's  sister's  husband  took 


A  COUNTRY  WEDDING  IN  INDIA     185 

the  corners  of  their  clothes  and  tied  them  together, 
and  a  Brahmin   soothsayer  read   something  unintel- 
ligible.    After  this  the  boy  and  girl  ran  round  the 
post  seven  times,  the  girl  leading.     When  they  were 
again  seated,  a  large  brass  pan  was  put  before  them 
and  the  guests  filed  by,  throwing  into  the  pan  their 
gifts — two  annas,  four  annas,  a  rupee,  or  pieces  of 
jewelry — each  one  touching  the  feet  of  the  bride  and 
the  groom.    This  done  the  knot  was  loosed  by  the  same 
uncle  who  had  tied  it.     The  little  girl  ran  into  her 
house  and  the  programme  for  that  day  was  ended. 
The  guests  slept  in  verandas,  under  trees  or  where- 
ever  they  chose.    The  next  day  there  was  another  big 
khana  for  them  to  eat.    At  this  dinner  batassa,  a  native 
candy,  was  distributed  by  the  boy's  father  to  all  the 
women  in  the  company.    The  girl's  father  now  present- 
ed this  new  son-in-law  with  a  buffalo  cow  and  calf,  a 
large  brass  water-pot,  etc.    On  this  sixth  day  of  fes- 
tivities, the  guests  returned  to  the  boy's  father's  house, 
accompanied  by  the  girl,  in  a  palki,  and  the  boy  on  a 
horse,  where  he  is  held  by  a  man  riding  the  same 
animal.     This  procession  was  a  noisy  one,  being  es- 
corted by  the  musicians,  who  rattle  and  bang  on  primi- 
tive instruments  at  intervals  through  all  their  lengthy 
ceremonies.     The  guests  were  all  gathered  together 
again  in  the  evening    for    another    feast.     On  the 
seventh  day  the  boy  and  girl  were  again  tied  together 
by  the  boy's  father's  sister's  husband  and  then  pro- 
ceeded to  a  debt  (idol)  and  poured  ghi  and  gurh  (butter 
and  common  sugar)  upon  it  and  bowed  themselves  be- 


186  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

fore  it.  Returning  to  the  boy's  house,  his  father  sends 
the  girl  home  with  a  proper  escort  and  a  huge  basket 
of  khana  and  sweets. 

This  completed  the  marriage  ceremony.  The  lit- 
tle five-year-old  girl  was  to  remain  in  her  own  father's 
house  until  of  a  proper  age  to  join  her  husband.  This 
proper  age,  so-called,  is  in  India  as  low  as  eleven  or 
twelve  years,  and  mothers  of  twelve  or  thirteen  are 
common. 

When  the  girl's  father  wishes  to  send  her  to  her 
husband,  he  will  send  word  to  that  effect.  An  escort 
will  be  sent  for  her,  composed  of  the  boy's  father  and 
some  relatives,  who  bring  sweets  for  the  women.  Each 
member  of  the  escort  receives  from  the  bride's  father 
a  rupee  and  a  piece  of  cloth.  Then  the  little  bride  will 
go  with  them,  taking  with  her  as  much  khana  as  she 
brought  home  from  her  first  visit  to  her  father-in-law's 
house.  Now  she  is  a  full-fledged  wife  in  her  husband's 
family. 

HIGH-CASTE  OR  BRAHMINICAL  MARRIAGE. 

In  ancient  or  Aryan  times,  infant-marriage  was  not 
the  rule,  and  marriage  was  not  performed  until  a  man 
and  woman  were  able  to  live  in  a  house  of  their  own. 
According  to  Manu  and  other  writers  on  religious  mat- 
ters, it  was  not  sinful  to  postpone  marriage  until  three 
years  after  puberty.  The  young  Brahmin,  after  his 
initiation  or  investiture  with  the  sacred  thread,  lived  for 
several  years  with  a  religious  instructor  and  only  after 
his  "Return"  was  he  allowed  to  take  a  wife  and  become 
a  householder.     The  ceremony  was  simpler  than  at 


ft  COUNTRY  WEDDING  IN  INDIA     187 

present.  The  grinding-stone  (for  curry  and  similar 
articles)  was  placed  west  of  the  sacred  fire  and  the 
water  jar  was  placed  northeast.  The  bridegroom  of- 
fered an  oblation  and  held  the  bride's  hand.  If  he 
wished  for  sons  only  he  clasped  (as  described  by  Sir 
Monier  Williams)  her  thumbs,  if  for  daughters,  the 
fingers  alone.  Then  the  bride  was  led  by  the  bride- 
groom, toward  the  right,  three  times  around  the  fire 
and  around  the  water  jar.    As  he  led  her  he  repeated: 

"I  am  male,  thou  art  female.  Come,  let  us  marry; 
let  us  possess  offspring ;  united  in  affection,  illustrious, 
well-disposed  toward  each  other,  let  us  live  for  a  hun- 
dred years."  Every  time  he  made  the  circle  he  caused 
her  to  ascend  the  mill-stone  and  said :  "Ascend  this 
stone,  be  thou  firm  as  a  rock." 

The  bride's  brother  then  put  melted  butter  on  the 
palms  of  her  hands  and  scattered  parched  rice  over 
them.  An  oblation  of  the  butter  was  made  to  the 
fire  and  the  marriage-hymn  was  sung.  Then  the 
bridegroom  unloosed  the  braided  tresses  of  hair  tied  on 
the  top  of  the  bride's  head,  repeating  a  Vedic  text: 
"I  loose  thee  from  the  fetters  of  Varuna  with  which 
the  very  auspicious  Savitri  has  bound  thee."  Then  he 
directed  her  to  take  seven  steps  toward  the  northeast, 
saying  as  she  walked :  "Take  one  step  to  acquire  force, 
two  for  strength,  three  for  the  increase  of  wealth,  four 
for  well-being,  five  for  offspring,  six  for  the  seasons 
and  seven  as  a  friend ;  be  faithfully  devoted  to  me ;  may 
we  obtain  many  sons;  may  they  attain  to  a  good  old 
age."  Then,  putting  their  heads  near  together,  both 
were  sprinkled  with  water  from  the  jar. 


188  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

The  sacred  fire  was  produced  by  friction  of  two 
pieces  of  consecrated  wood  called  arani,  and  this  fire 
which  witnessed  their  union,  was  brought  by  the  young 
couple  to  their  home. 

The  modern  Brahminical  marriage  ceremonies,  for 
there  are  three  distinct  observances,  are  each  compli- 
cated and  expensive.  The  initiation  of  the  boy,  or  his 
investiture  with  the  Brahminical  thread,  is  followed  by 
a  formal  performance  of  the  rite  called  "Return,"  and 
he  spends  no  time  with  a  teacher.  Two  or  three  days 
afterward,  the  second  marriage  ceremony  is  celebrated. 
The  little  girl,  or  rather  baby-wife,  has  been  chosen  for 
him,  and  the  first,  or  betrothal-ceremony  has  already 
been  complied  with.  Now,  at  the  age  of  nine  or  ten, 
the  second,  or  legal  ceremony  is  observed.  Beginning 
all  of  these  there  is  feasting  and  noisy  music,  followed 
at  numerous  intervals  by  more  feasting  and  music. 
After  all  is  finished  there  is  again  feasting,  some  wed- 
ding celebrations  occasioning  from  seven  to  twelve 
grand  dinners,  with  almost  unlimited  charitable  hospi- 
tality in  the  giving  out  of  food  to  the  poor  who  assem- 
ble at  the  gates. 

The  real  ceremony  begins  with  the  night  proces- 
sion of  the  bridegroom  to  the  house  of  the  bride.  Then 
follows  the  tying  of  the  consecrated  cloth.  One  end  of 
it  is  fastened  to  the  bridegroom's  dre?~  and  the  other 
to  that  of  the  bride's.  Sometimes  the  garments  them- 
selves are  tied  together.  The  hands  of  the  young 
couple  are  joined  under  this  cloth,  red  marks  are  made 
on  their  faces  by  ladies  of  the  family,  and  garlands  of 
flowers  thrown  over  their  heads.  The  red  marks  refer 


A  COUNTRY  WEDDING  IN  INDIA     189 

to  a  legend  of  the  gods,  too  revolting  to  be  recited 
here  and  happily  understood  by  very  few  who  use  the 
symbols.  The  priests  then  take  a  sacred  cord  and 
wind  it  round  the  necks  of  the  bridegroom  and  bride, 
joining  them  thus  together  while  muttering  Vedic 
texts.  The  bridegroom's  hands  are  then  placed  in  milk 
and  sprinklings  of  red  powder,  rice  grains,  cocoanut 
milk  and  water  follow.  In  another  room  more  red 
marks  are  applied  and  money  presented  by  the  bride- 
groom. They  return  to  the  first  room,  where  four 
earthen  pots  have  been  placed  in  the  four  corners  of 
the  tent,  most  of  the  ceremonies  being  performd  in  a 
tent  or  booth  erected  for  the  purpose.  The  couple  walk 
around  the  tent  four  times  and  throw  barley,  betel-nuts 
and  oil  seeds  into  the  consecrated  fire  which  has  been 
lighted  during  their  absence.  The  priests  throw  in 
ghee,  and  the  seven  steps  around  the  fire  are  taken  as  in 
the  ancient  ceremony.  This  ceremony  is  twenty-five 
hundred  years  old  and,  with  slight  modifications  and 
more  elaborate  ritual,  is  really  the  same  as  observed 
to-day. 

Minor  ceremonies  continue  for  eight  days.  On  the 
eighth  the  bride  and  bridegroom  go  together  to  wor- 
ship at  a  temple — it  may  be  of  Lakshmi,  goddess  of 
prosperity,  or  of  some  other  favorite  god  or  goddess. 

In  all  these  weddings  the  wishes  of  the  two  princi- 
pal actors  are  never  consulted,  parental  law  and  cus- 
tom or  better,  caste,  ruling  all.  Dancing,  noisy  music 
and  continuous  feasting  characterize  the  weddings  of 
the  wealthy,  which  the  poorer  high-caste  families  imi- 
tate as  nearly  as  they   can.     Often    the    savings  of  a 


i9o  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

whole  life-time  are  spent,  many  rich  people  spending 
$50,000  or  even  more  on  a  single  wedding.  Woe  be 
to  the  family  whose  birth  and  social  rank  is  high  and 
grand,  while  their  purse  is  low  and  humble !  To  meet 
the  demands  of  rank,  debt  is  incurred  which  is  often  not 
yet  paid  by  grand-children,  for  a  man  not  only  inherits 
rank  and  wealth  or  rank  without  wealth,  but  he  falls 
heir  to  debts  as  well.  One  good  result  of  this  extrava- 
gance at  weddings  is  that,  although,  it  is  lawful  for  a 
Hindu  of  high  caste  to  have  more  than  one  wife,  the 
expense  forbids  it.  Hence  peace  is  preserved  in  many 
families. 

The  dancing  girls,  or  "Nautch"  girls,  sing  the  loves, 
quarrels  and  reconciliations  of  Krishna  and  his  wives 
or  mistresses.  As  a  rule  these  songs  are  most  indecent. 
Many  otherwise  refined  people  will  permit  this,  believ- 
ing it  to  be  essential  to  the  success  of  a  wedding.  The 
jewels  and  trousseau  of  the  bride  in  wealthy  families 
are  fabulous.  In  many  cases  the  first  order  for  wed- 
ding-jewels is  given  at  the  time  of  betrothal. 

The  third  ceremony  of  marriage  is  when  the  bride's 
home-coming  to  the  husband's  family  occurs.  Strang- 
ers, seeing  these  processions  nearing  the  house,  and 
hearing  the  loud  wailing  of  the  little  bride,  are  greatly 
stirred  at  such  a  cruel  custom.  Yet,  while  there  are, 
no  doubt,  more  weeping  brides  than  smiling  ones,  it  is 
etiquette  to  weep  and  lament  at  leaving  one's  father's 
house.  Many  brides,  immediately  after  the  second  or 
legal  ceremony,  go  to  be  inmates  of  their  husband's 
home,  even  though  he  may  yet  be  at  school  or  away 
at  college.    At  the  proper  age  she  becomes  his  actual 


A  COUNTRY  WEDDING  IN  INDIA     191 

wife  and — alas !  too  often  at  an  improper  age,  for  the 
rule  is  in  India  to  blossom  early  and  fade  young. 
Many  boys  in  school  are  already  fathers.  There  is  in- 
deed no  proper  founding  of  a  home,  no  real  individual 
family  life;  a  sort  of  common  shelter  only  with  indi- 
vidual wives.  And  where  a  mother-in-law  and  four, 
five  or  more  daughters-in-law  live  in  one  house, 
whether  large  or  small,  there  is  usually  very  little  love 
or  happiness — at  best  a  stolid  endurance,  at  worst 
discord  and  discontent.  There  may  be  jewels,  rich  car- 
pets, silver  and  brass,  but  it  is  difficult  to  cultivate  the 
meek  and  quiet  spirit,  and  almost  impossible  to  capture 
Joy  in  such  a  household. 

MOHAMMEDAN  WEDDING. 

Mohammedan  girls  are  usually  betrothed  between 
the  ages  of  twelve  and  sixteen  and  the  marriage  occurs 
soon  after.  Some  are  betrothed  even  younger.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  Hindus,  the  barber  and  his  wife  are  em- 
ployed as  match-makers,  the  man  making  all  arrange- 
ments among  the  men  and  his  wife  acting  as  go-be- 
tween among  the  women  of  the  two  families.  When 
the  parents  on  both  sides  are  satisfied,  an  invitation  is 
issued  by  the  bridegroom  and  his  family  to  their  friends 
to  accompany  them  to  the  bride's  house  with  gifts. 
These  presents  consist  of  two  rings,  gold  or  silver,  as 
financial  circumstances  permit;  a  quantity  of  sweet- 
meats called  batassas,  a  suit  of  clothes  and  one  rupee, 
one  anna  in  coin.  The  prospective  mother-in-law 
places  five  or  seven  handfuls  of  batassas,  with  the 
rupee,  in  the  girl's  lap.     The  one  anna  (worth  two 


192  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

cents)  is  passed  over  the  girl's  head  and  then  given  to 
the  barber's  wife.  Then  the  inevitable  pan  supari  is 
distributed.  This  is  chopped  betel-nut,  spices,  lime, 
and  catchu  rolled  up  in  a  fresh  pan  leaf,  or  betel  leaf 
and  pinned  -with  a  clove.  This,  in  India,  takes  the 
place  of  tea,  and  is  the  expression  for  hospitality.  Even 
at  feasts  it  has  its  place  and  lends  the  finishing  touch 
to  every  entertainment. 

After  the  bride  receives  her  gifts,  the  compliment  is 
returned  and  the  bridegroom-elect  is  given  a  new 
pugri,  a  handkerchief,  two  rings  and  the  one  rupee 
and  anna  in  money,  the  anna  going  to  the  barber. 

This  gift  ceremony  is  called  the  Mangni  or  asking, 
At  this  time  the  date  is  fixed  for  the  wedding,  which 
may  take  place  a  week,  a  month,  or  a  year  afterwards. 

Before  the  real  marriage  there  are  great  prepara- 
tions at  the  house  of  the  bride.  Fritters  of  flour,  sugar 
and  ghee  are  fried  and  rice-cakes  and  other  toothsome 
things  are  prepared.  The  whole  night  prior  to  the 
wedding,  servants  and  retainers  are  busy  cooking  and 
baking. 

At  midday  the  Kazi,  or  religious  judge,  arrives,  ac- 
companied by  the  friends  of  the  bridegroom,  bringing 
gifts  of  jewelry,  brass  cooking-utensils,  clothing, 
money,  etc. 

The  girl  sits  behind  the  purdah,  or  curtain,  with  her 
parents.  The  Kazi  and  bridegroom  take  their  places 
some  distance  away,  in  front  of  the  curtain.  Two  men, 
chosen  as  witnesses,  now  approach  the  purdah  and  ask 
the  girl  if  she  will  accept  them  as  witnesses.  After  re- 
ceiving  a   muffled  affirmative,  the   chief  question   is 


A  COUNTRY  WEDDING  IN  INDIA     193 

asked— whether  she  is  willing1  to  take  the  man  whom 
her  parents  have  chosen  for  her  as  her  lawful  husband. 
Again  a  muffled  consent  is  received,  and  this  is  reported 
to  the  Kazi  and  the  bridegroom.  The  witnesses  are 
sent  back  three  times  to  make  certain  of  the  answer. 
After  this  is  settled  the  parents  come  to  terms,  through 
these  same  witnesses,  as  to  what  they  are  to  pay  or 
receive  in  case  one  of  the  contracting  parties  deserts 
the  other.    In  well-to-do  homes  this  is  a  large  sum. 

After  this  the  Kazi  reads  from  the  Koran  in  regard 
to  the  duties  of  marriage,  and  finally  pronounces  them 
man  and  wife.  Up  to  this  time  the  young  couple  have 
not  seen  each  other.  In  the  evening  the  bride  is  carried 
in  a  palanquin  to  her  husband's  house,  the  bridegroom 
accompanying  the  procession  on  horseback.  Native 
bands  and  quantities  of  fireworks  enliven  the  proces- 
sion. The  introduction  of  the  bride  and  groom  takes 
place  by  means  of  a  mirror,  which  is  held  before  the 
bride's  face,  the  young  husband  looking  over  her  shoul- 
der. If  displeased,  he  may  console  himself  with  the 
thought  that  the  second  venture  may  prove  more 
agreeable,  but  for  the  bride  there  is  no  mitigation  of 
possible  disappointment. 

The  wedding  garments  and  jewelry  of  both  bride 
and  groom,  among  the  rich,  are  quite  magnificent, 
costing  thousands  of  rupees.  The  gold  and  silver  tin- 
sel and  gems  which  sometimes  encrust  the  velvet  coats 
and  other  garments  make  the  trousseau  very  dazzling. 
For  several  weeks  after  the  marriage  the  bride  sits 
daily  on  a  charpoy,  or  bedstead,  for  inspection  by  fe- 
male visitors.    Each  one  may  get  a  glimpse  of  her  face 


T94  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

from  among  the  sheets  which  cover  her  crouching  fig- 
ure at  the  price  of  a  small  coin,  which  is  first  placed  in 
her  hand. 

After  all  this  formality  the  new  bride  takes  her  place 
in  the  composite  family,  consisting  of  father  and  moth- 
er-in-law, the  unmarried  sisters  of  her  husband  and 
perhaps  one  or  two  married  brothers  and  their  wives. 
In  many  houses  these  women  manage  to  live  out  of 
sight  of  all  the  men  except  their  own  husbands,  keep- 
ing real  purdah.  In  others  the  letter  of  the  law  is  ob- 
served, while  the  spirit  is  broken ;  but  there  is  seldom  or 
never  any  of  the  real  beauty  of  home.  Most  of  the 
brides  have  a  rough  path  before  them ;  especially  those 
who  find  two  or  more  wives  already  occupying  the 
dwelling  and  heart  of  the  newly  wedded  husband. 

The  beauty  and  glamour  surrounding  the  bride  and 
groom  in  their  new  home  in  Christian  lands  do  not 
shine  under  tropical  skies  beneath  the  sanction  of  Mos- 
lem rites. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  HILL  COUNTRY. 

The  various  hill-stations  in  India  might  be  called 
life-saving  posts. 

Every  province  has  its  official  headquarters  during 
the  summer  in  one  of  these  delightful  resorts.  The 
Viceroy  and  cabinet  go  to  Simla;  the  Northwest  prov- 
inces have  Naini  Tal ;  the  Madras  governor  and  suite 
choose  Ootacamund,  in  the  Nilgiri  Hills ;  Bombay  has 
Mahableshwar  in  the  western  ghats,  and  the  central 
provinces,  Pachmarhi.  This  latter  is  only  three  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  feet  high  and,  while  the  climate  is 
far  superior  to  that  of  the  sultry  plains,  yet  it  is  not 
cold  enough  to  conserve  the  vitality  of  those  already 
greatly  debilitated  by  living  on  the  lower  levels.  There 
are  many  other  hill  resorts.  Simla,  Mussoorie  and  Dar- 
jeeling  are  the  most  noted  of  the  sanitariums  of  the 
Himalayas.  Darjeeling  was  the  scene  of  the  awful 
landslides  which  cost  so  much  life  in  1899. 

In  India  we  look  literally  "to  the  hills  from  whence 
cometh  our  help."  After  having  lived  here  for  six 
years  without  a  vacation,  we  felt  that  we  must,  for  the 
sake  of  the  little  ones,  go  away  to  the  Himalayas  and 
secure  a  breath  of  air  which  had  blown  over  the  ever- 
lasting snows.  So  we  took  our  journey  through  cen- 
tral and  north  India  and  finally  reached  Saharranpur, 

195 


196  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

where  the  railway  ended.  From  thence,  by  night  trav- 
eling, in  an  uncomfortable  tonga,  we  journeyed  to  Raj- 
pur.  Then  we  took  "dandies,"  a  sort  of  palanquin,  and 
were  carried  up  the  sharp  ascent  of  seven  miles.  Look- 
ing back,  as  we  circled  around  some  sharp  curve,  we 
could  see  the  second  dandy  following  below.  Some- 
times we  seemed  hanging  over  an  unfathomable  abyss. 
The  air  grew  cooler  and  cooler.  More  wraps  were 
donned  and  at  length  we  reached  Mussoorie,  or  more 
correctly  Mun-suri  (delectable  mountain). 

The  scenery  was  grand  in  the  extreme.  One  morn- 
ing I  took  a  long  ramble  alone  around  a  peak  called 
"Camel's  Back."  Suddenly,  at  a  turn  of  the  road,  with 
a  perpendicular  wall  on  the  inside  and  a  fearful  preci- 
pice on  the  outer  edge,  straight  in  front  of  me,  I  saw 
the  distant  snow-peaks,  dazzling  white  and  tinted  with 
rosy  red  in  the  beams  of  the  rising  sun.  I  had  not 
seen  snow  for  six  years  and,  forgetting  everything  but 
the  glory  of  the  scene,  I  shouted:  "The  snows,  the 
snows,  the  everlasting  snows!"  It  was  a  moment  of 
ecstasy.  Never  after,  during  all  the  three  months  of 
our  stay,  was  the  air  clear  enough  for  another  such 
view.  Everything  seems  perpendicular  in  Mussoorie. 
No  horse  or  bullock  conveyance  can  be  used  on  the 
precipitous  roads.  Only  dandies,  jampans  and  jinrick- 
shas are  to  be  seen.  There  is  constant  climbing.  For 
children,  the  roads  are  very  dangerous  and  almost  every 
year  one  or  more  fall  over  the  steeps,  sometimes  never 
to  be  found,  as  the  wild  beasts  below  reach  them  before 
the  hill-men  can  descend.    A  fall  of  this  sort  is  always 


THE   HILL   COUNTRY  197 

fatal,  since  the  slope  is  so  precipitous  that  nothing  pre- 
vents the  body  from  repeated  blows  until  life  is  ex- 
tinct. 

There  are  hotels  in  all  these  hill-stations,  many  plain 
boarding-houses  and  an  occasional  mission-sanitarium. 
Some  missionaries  cannot  endure  the  climate  on  the 
plains  for  more  than  a  year  before  they  require  a  short 
change  to  the  hills ;  others  can  remain  four,  five  or  six 
years,  while  still  others  never  go  to  the  higher  lands  at 
all.  The  children  suffer  most  from  the  heat  and  ma- 
laria oi  the  plains.  Most  of  the  English  officials  send 
their  wives  and  children  to  the  hills  every  year,  even 
when  they  themselves  cannot  go. 

If  missionaries  had  this  healthful  change  more  fre- 
quently many  lives  would  be  lengthened  for  service. 
It  sometimes  seems  as  though  people  at  home  approve 
of  martyrdom  in  the  case  of  missionaries,  for  we  some- 
times hear  unfavorable  criticism  of  these  hill- journeys. 
This  is,  indeed,  martyrdom  by  proxy.  Many  here  even 
incur  debt  in  order  to  get  to  the  hills  to  save  a  loved 
one's  life.  Come  to  India,  dear  friends,  and  see;  but 
let  it  not  be  in  the  cool  season.  Be  sure  to  remain 
through  April,  May  and  June.  Stay  two  seasons,  if 
possible,  for  very  few  realize  the  full  power  of  the  heat 
the  first  season.  Most  of  us  find  it  harder  to  endure 
from  year  to  year,  as  our  systems  become  more  debili- 
tated. By  the  third  hot  season  we  fancy  all  our  visit- 
ors would  also  be  "going  to  the  hills"  and  their  most 
ardent  longing  would  be  for  a  glimpse  of  the  snows, 
the  everlasting  snows. 


198  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

As  we  ascended  we  seemed  to  find  the  air  purer  and 
purer,  leaving  miasma  and  disease  far  below.  Then, 
even  in  Mussoorie,  we  could  look  away  to  the  dazzling 
heights  still  above  us.  So,  we  thought,  our  souls  may 
climb  height  after  height — and  yet,  far  away,  is  the 
throne  of  eternal  whiteness — not  cold  like  these  beau- 
tiful peaks,  but  fair  and  lovely  in  the  light  and  love  of 
God. 

One  season  I  spent  in  Pachmarhi  with  the  children. 
Here  you  can  use  bullock-tongas  and  other  convey- 
ances, as  the  place  is  on  a  beautiful  plateau.  Short 
walks  bring  you  to  lovely  rocks  and  deep  ravines, 
mountain  streams  and  lovely  waterfalls.  Very  few 
people  are  here  except  officials  of  the  central  provinces. 
Two  missions  have  sanitariums  here — one  Lake  View, 
on  a  tiny  sheet  of  water,  and  Riverside,  where  we  were 
entertained,  beside  a  pretty  river.  In  this  station  the 
Sahib  log,  as  the  English  are  called,  have  polo-grounds 
and  race-courses,  and  amuse  themselves  in  many  other 
ways  while  absent  from  official  duties.  Tennis-courts 
and  badminton  grounds  are  attached  to  most  of  the 
houses.  Every  Tuesday  the  chief  commissioner  gives 
a  garden  party  in  his  beautiful  grounds,  to  which  the 
missionaries  as  well  as  the  English  officials  are  in- 
vited. 

Pachmarhi  is  a  most  homelike  place.  Its  beautiful 
ahmiltas  trees  with  their  masses  of  golden  bloom  are 
among  its  chief  beauties.  There  is  a  government  gar- 
den there,  to  the  expense  of  which  all  subscribe,  and 
every  day  a  basket  of  fresh  fruit  and  vegetables  is 


THE   HILL  COUNTRY  199 

brought  to  every  house.  The  garden  itself  is  a  lovely 
place  for  strolls  and  full  of  quiet  nooks  in  which  to 
read.  Naini  Tal,  Simla  and  Darjeeling  are  similar  to 
Mussoorie,  though  the  scenery  is  perhaps  grandest  at 
Darjeeling.  From  there  the  lofty  crest  of  Mount 
Everest  may  be  seen  in  its  dazzling  garb  of  white. 

But  nothing  we  have  seen  can  compare  to  beautiful 
Ootacamund,  or  "Ooty,"  as  it  is  familiarly  called.  The 
scenery  is  not  so  grand  as  in  the  Himalayas,  but  for 
verdure,  beautiful  roads,  easy  climbing  and  blooming 
plants,  it  excels  all.  From  where  we  lived  one  could 
look  away  over  sloping  green  hills  to  the  golden  gates 
of  the  sinking  sun.  The  officials  go  out  on  the  downs 
to  hunt  foxes  and  across  the  downs,  away  twelve  miles 
to  Pykara  Falls,  is  a  drive  unrivaled  for  exquisite 
beauty. 

To  go  out  for  a  day's  strolling,  with  one  or  two  for 
company,  is  something  to  remember  when  you  return 
to  your  work  on  the  plains.  Two  of  us  set  off  one  day 
with  a  few  biscuits  and  an  orange  in  each  pocket  and 
staid  out  eight  hours.  We  drank  of  a  spring  up  on 
Snowdon ;  gathered  mushrooms  and  wild  strawberries 
and  the  soft-looking  gray  vegetable  coral;  strolled 
through  tea-gardens,  through  the  government  cinchona 
plantations,  into  thick  groves  of  eucalyptus  trees,  with 
their  sprucy  odors;  through  mossy  dingles  and  over 
smooth  slopes,  and  finally  reached  home,  after  having 
drunk  fully  of  Nature's  sweetness  and  laid  by  for  all 
our  lives  a  store  of  remembered  beauty.  Here  and 
there  we  came  upon  exquisite  views  of  the  dwelling- 


200  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

portion  of  Ooty,  and  it  looked  as  beautiful  as  human 
mind  could  conceive  the  New  Jerusalem  in  prophet's 
vision. 

Ah !  yes,  to  the  hills,  to  the  everlasting  hills,  weary 
toiler  on  the  plains  of  India,  and  weary  toilers  on  the 
plains  of  life!  Tis  true  the  work,  the  endurance,  the 
casting  out  of  demons,  lies  below  the  mount ;  but  let  us 
ascend  now  and  again  and  breathe  the  purer,  loftier  air 
of  the  earthly  and  heavenly  summits.  So  shall  our 
bodies  endure  the  time  of  conflict,  our  minds  and  spirits 
remain  calm  in  the  tumults  and  from  the  other  heights 
of  prayer  and  faith  our  souls  be  equipped  for  further 
flight,  some  wondrous  day. 

PEOPLE  OF  THE  HILLS. 

In  the  Himalayas  there  is  a  sturdy,  independent  race 
of  men.  They  have  little  land-holdings  here  and  there 
in  the  mountains,  but  come  during  the  summer  months 
to  the  health  resorts  to  find  remunerative  toil.  They 
are  a  rough,  unkempt,  dirty-looking  people,  but  their 
manners  are  entirely  different  from  the  cringing  be- 
havior of  the  coolie  on  the  plains.  A  lady  was  being 
carried  along  in  a  jampan  by  four  of  these  hill  coolies. 
She  had  complained  a  great  deal  all  the  way,  and  they 
finally  set  her  down,  declaring  she  must  promise  to  stop 
scolding  or  else  pay  them  extra  for  listening  to  her. 
She  prevailed  on  them  to  go  on  after  swallowing  her 
pride  sufficiently  to  give  a  feeble  assurance,  but  no 
sooner  was  she  on  the  way  again  than  she  resumed  her 
lamentations.  They  promptly  put  her  down,  demand- 
ing a  fine  because  she  had  not  kept  her  word,  which, 
being  unable  to  walk,  she  was  forced  to  pay.    These 


THE   HILL   COUNTRY  201 

men  are  fine  climbers  and,  having  learned  how  much 
the  hill-ferns  in  their  countless  varieties  are  prized  by 
visitors,  they  bring  them,  with  quantities  of  orchids 
and  other  flowers,  to  the  hotels  and  boarding  places  for 
sale.  They  often  descend  the  precipitous  cliffs  to 
search  for  children  who  have  fallen  over. 

Very  different  from  these  independent  men  are  the 
Gonds,  the  aboriginals  who  inhabit  the  low  hills  in  the 
central  provinces.  They  are  a  hunted  and  down-trod- 
den people.  From  the  early  Aryan  times  they  have 
been  used  to  being  beaten  back  into  the  hills  before  the 
encroachments  of  the  fairer  and  more  aggressive  Ary- 
ans. They  are  ignorant  and  wild,  following  primitive 
agriculture  as  a  livelihood  and  herding  a  few  cattle 
and  goats  to  eke  out  their  subsistence.  Their  experi- 
ence of  oppression  has  led  them  to  conclude  that  power 
is  always  associated  with  a  desire  to  destroy  or  mal- 
treat; thus  their  religion  is  a  sort  of  devil-worship. 
They  hope  by  offerings  and  ceremonies  pleasing  to  the 
evil  spirit  to  ward  off  his  malevolent  designs  and  so  to 
live  in  peace.  They  have  a  most  humble  opinion  of 
themselves.  When  Mr.  Lampard  went  to  begin  mis- 
sionary work  among  them  they  could  not  comprehend 
his  motives  and  suspected  him  for  some  time.  When 
they  became  convinced  that  he  did  not  mean  to  harm 
them,  but  had  come  for  their  good,  to  teach  them  about 
a  God  who  did  not  hate,  but  loved  even  such  wild  chil- 
dren of  the  hills  as  themselves,  their  astonishment 
knew  no  bounds.  "Why,"  they  said,  "of  what  use  is 
it  to  try  to  teach  us ;  we  are  only  monkey-men.  Better 
leave  us  in  our  jungles." 


202  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

During  the  famine  these  poor  people  suffered  terri- 
bly. Having  only  their  little  fields  to  depend  upon, 
when  the  evil  spirit  dried  up  the  clouds  and  parched 
the  young  grain  and  the  grass,  what  were  they  to  do  ? 
Many  toiled  on  the  government  relief-works.  But 
after  fathers  and  mothers  had  died  and  the  little  hut 
was  gone,  with  not  even  a  cooking-pot  left,  boys  and 
girls  wandered  into  the  towns  and  were  taken  to  the 
poor-sheds  to  be  fed,  or  gathered  into  the  mission-com- 
pounds which  stood  hospitably  open.  Now,  many 
dark,  rough-featured  little  Gonds  are  standing  in  the 
orphanages  beside  the  fair,  aristocratic  Brahmin  boys 
and  girls  who  were  also  orphaned  during  those  dark 
times.  They  will  no  doubt  go  back  to  the  hills  some 
day — but  let  us  believe  that  it  will  be  to  plant  Christian 
homes  and  villages  and  bring  the  Christian  God  of 
love  to  the  "monkey-men"  who  now  fear  only  hob- 
goblins and  evil  spirits. 

THE  TODAS  OF  THE  NILGIRI  HILLS. 

The  great  variety  of  people  and  languages  found  in 
India  is  difficult  for  a  foreigner  to  comprehend.  Many 
writers  describe  the  characteristics  of  "A  native  of  In- 
dia," forgetting  that  there  is  almost  as  much  difference 
between  the  Bengali  and  the  Punjabi  as  there  is  be- 
tween the  Spaniard  and  the  Scotchman. 

Perhaps  no  other  of  the  many  peoples  of  this  em- 
pire has  been  so  little  heard  of  or  written  about  as  the 
Todas  of  the  Nilgiri  hills ;  yet  they  are  very  interesting 
and  totally  distinguished  from  any  other  tribe  or  caste 
in  customs,  worship  and  physique. 


THE   HILL   COUNTRY  203 

To  see  them  roaming  these  hills,  herding  the  buffa- 
loes they  love  so  much,  clothed  only  in  a  single  flowing 
cloth  thrown  about  their  bodies,  one  might  conclude 
that  they  were  nomadic  and  almost  wild.  But  their 
little  groups  of  mound-shaped  huts  are  permanent 
homes.  These  tiny  villages  are  called  munds,  and  a 
visit  to  a  "Toda  mund"  is  one  of  the  prescribed  enter- 
tainments for  all  visitors  to  these  hills. 

The  women  and  children  are  usually  found  alone, 
with  perhaps  one  or  two  old  priests  sitting  about.  The 
men  are  off  on  the  beautiful  downs  pasturing  their 
herds.  A  dairy-temple  and  a  buffalo  enclosure  are 
found  in  each  mund. 

Strangers  are  not  allowed  to  enter  these  temples  or 
even  to  look  into  them.  They  are  called  "dairy-tem- 
ples" because  used  for  ceremonies  connected  with  buf- 
falo-worship. Great  quantities  of  milk  and  ghee  (clar- 
ified butter)  are  used  as  offerings  to  their  gods,  the 
uncouth  animals  they  tend  and  worship.  The  Todas  ad- 
mit that  in  some  temples  there  are  images,  but  of  what 
sort  they  do  not  tell.  In  some  way  these  must  also  be 
related  to  buffaloes,  for  all  a  Toda's  thoughts  and  af- 
fections cling  about  these  creatures.  All  their  songs 
are  about  the  buffaloes,  and  anything  more  uncanny 
than  these  songs,  sung  by  a  dozen  or  more  women  with 
lips  nearly  closed,  is  hard  to  imagine. 

The  temples  are  of  the  same  shape  as  the  dwelling- 
hut  shown  in  the  picture.  While  they  would  not  allow 
us  to  enter  the  temples,  we  were  allowed  to  crawl  on 
our  hands  and  knees  through  the  low  aperture  leading 
into  the  dwelling.    The  one  we  entered  we  found  very 


204  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

clean  and  tidy,  although  everything  was  well  seasoned 
with  smoke,  as  there  is  no  opening  for  it  to  escape  ex- 
cept the  low  door. 

Most  people  admire  the  appearance  of  these  people. 
Almost  all  of  them  have  very  beautiful,  long,  silky, 
curling  hair — even  the  men — and  their  bodies  are 
strong  and  well  formed.  They  are,  however,  as  a  peo- 
ple, rapidly  passing  away.  They  now  number,  all  told, 
only  seven  hundred,  and  we  cannot  wonder  when  we 
know  that  the  revolting  custom  of  polyandry  exists 
among  them.  They  are  probably  the  only  people  known 
who  retain  this  practice. 

Should  a  Toda  decide  to  become  a  Christian  he 
would  find  it  extremely  difficult.  His  wife  he  must 
leave  forever,  for  she  is  the  joint  wife  of  himself  and 
his  brothers.  Harder  still,  he  must  leave  what  is  far 
dearer  to  a  Toda's  heart  than  his  wife,  his  beloved  buf- 
faloes, which  are  also  owned  in  common  by  his  broth- 
ers and  himself.  He  could  claim  no  children,  and,  with 
buffaloes,  occupation,  wife,  children  and  home  gone, 
he  would  be  a  veritable  waif. 

The  Todas  know  nothing  of  their  origin.  So  far  as 
I  can  ascertain  those  who  work  among  them  know 
quite  as  little  on  that  point.  The  Todas  themselves  say 
they  have  always  lived  in  these  hills  and  owned  their 
buffaloes.  They  wear  but  one  garment — a  loosely  ar- 
ranged blanket  of  cotton  or  wool. 

The  great  event  toward  which  a  Toda's  thought  and 
care  are  directed  is  his  funeral.  Before  the  English 
regulated  the  sacrificing  of  the  buffaloes  there  used  to 
be  a  perfect  carnage  of  the  sacred  animals.     For,  al- 


THE   HILL   COUNTRY  20$ 

though  the  Toda  worships  his  herds,  yet  he  uses  them 
for  sacrifices,  not  revering  their  life  as  the  Hindu  does 
that  of  the  sacred  bull  and  cow.  The  number  killed  at 
a  funeral  depends  on  the  rank  and  wealth  of  the  dead 
Toda.  These  animals  are  not  in  the  least  docile,  and 
often  in  capturing  them  a  young  Toda  is  killed  and 
then  there  is  another  funeral  a»d  more  buffaloes  sacri- 
ficed. There  are  two  funeral  services,  one  being  held  a 
year  after  the  death  occurs.  The  women  sit  before  the 
dead  Toda's  hut,  singing  their  weird  songs.  At  ten 
o'clock  in  the  day  a  new  hut  is  built,  and  in  it  are  placed 
the  club,  cloth  and  utensils- of  the  deceased.  Offerings 
of  ghee  and  cloth  are  brought  and  placed  before  the 
hut.  Then  all  dance  before  it  and  utter  cries  resembling 
the  howling  of  jackals,  which  of  all  sounds  ever  heard 
is  the  most  hideous.  After  this  violent  exercise  dinner 
is  served  to  all  on  green  leaves  instead  of  plates.  The 
next  .day  the  buffaloes  are  sacrificed.  These  are  to  fur- 
nish the  dead  Toda  with  nourishment  in  the  happy  buf- 
falo heaven  to  which  he  aspires. 

Mission  effort  among  these  people  was  begun  only 
eight  years  ago,  and  as  yet  no  Toda  has  been  converted'. 
Miss  Ling,  the  devoted  missionary  who  works  among 
them,  has  translated  Mark's  gospel  and  some  Christian 
songs  into  their  tongue.  As  they  have  no  written  lan- 
guage she  was  obliged  to  use  the  Tamil  character,  the 
Tamil  being  the  language  largely  used  in  South  India, 
Some  impression  has  been  made  on  these  people,  as 
the  two  incidents  following  will  show : 

A  woman  who  had  been  taught  for  some  time  lost 
her  sight.    She  was  taken  by  the  missionary  to  the  hos- 


206  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

pital  and  was  cured.  The  first  Sunday  after  she  left 
the  hospital  she  came  to  the  Christian  Tamil  service. 
When  asked  why  she  was  there,  as  she  could  not  un- 
derstand the  preaching,  singing  or  praying,  she  an- 
swered :  "I  am  thankful  to  God  for  giving  me  sight, 
and  He  understood  all  that  was  said  and  my  heart, 
too."  Her  eyes  had  been  opened  to  the  God  who  is  a 
spirit,  or  she  would  have  bowed  to  her  buffaloes  and 
thanked  them  for  her  sight. 

The  second  incident  relates  to  a  Toda  boy  who  had 
been  instructed  in  a  Sunday-school.  He  had  had  a 
dream  and  told  Miss  Ling  that  it  made  him  sad.  He 
dreamed  he  saw  tribes  and  tribes  going  into  heaven. 
There  were  white  people  and  brown  and  black,  Brah- 
mins, low-caste  and  Mohammedans,  and  many  that  he 
did  not  know,  but  not  one  Toda.  Miss  Ling  answered 
by  singing  in  his  own  language,  "Jesus,  I  Will  Fol- 
low." As  she  finished  the  boy  said :  "I  will  follow." 
He  seemed  really  trying  to  do  so.  Let  us  hope  that 
he  may  continue  until  he  is  a  man  and  perhaps  help  to 
lead  his  own  people  into  Christ's  light. 

To  become  Christians  they  must  cease  everything,  al- 
most, which  distinguishes  them  as  a  people.  Families 
must  be  broken  up  and  Christian  marriages  instituted. 
Even  their  occupation  would  be  a  temptation  to  them. 

In  some  parts  of  Ireland,  where  peculiar  dialects  lin- 
ger, it  is  said  that  a  form  of  the  Lord's  prayer  is  still 
used  in  which  the  expression  "Deliver  us  from  evil" 
is  rendered  "Deliver  us  from  Druidical  practice."  So 
these  poor  Todas,  bound  hand  and  foot,  as  it  were,  to 
the  uncouth  creatures  they  worship,  will  some  day  pray 


THE   HILL   COUNTRY  207 

"Deliver  us  from  buffalo-worship,"  for  they,  too,  shall 
ultimately  join  the  ransomed  throng  here  on  earth,  and, 
delivered  from  the  terrible  custom  of  polyandry  which 
has  decimated  their  race,  become  strong  dwellers  in 
these  blue  mountains,  praising  our  God  amid  this  beau- 
tiful scenery,  and  perhaps  going  now  and  then  to  visit 
the  old  munds  where  their  ancestors  lived  in  the  an- 
cient days  of  buffalo-worship. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
ORIENTAL  PALACES  AND  TOMBS. 

Delhi  is  called  the  Rome  of  Asia,  because  it  is  so  full 
of  beautiful  buildings  and  interesting  ruins.  The  old 
part,  abounding  in  relics  of  bygone  days,  together  with 
the  new,  covers  an  area  of  ten  miles  by  six.  It  is 
really  divided  into  seven  Delhis.  Inside  the  entire  area 
there  are  seven  castles  and  fifty-two  gates.  All  these, 
besides  tombs,  pillars  and  old  Buddhist  remains,  are 
extremely  interesting. 

Delhi  was  settled  by  the  early  Aryans,  but  the  Hindu 
monarchy  was  probably  removed  before  the  Christian 
era.  Of  all  the  reigns  before  that  era  that  of  Asoka  is 
probably  the  only  one  of  which  we  have  really  authen- 
tic history.  During  his  reign  the  Buddhist  faith  was 
proclaimed  the  state  religion  and  from  his  laths,  or 
pillars,  at  Delhi  and  Allahabad,  we  learn  many  of  the 
civil  and  religious  laws  which  he  proclaimed.  These 
are  known  as  "Asoka's  Edicts"  and  are  in  the  Pali  lan- 
guage.   He  came  to  the  throne  about  263  B.  C. 

In  the  eighth  century,  A.  D.,  Delhi  became  the 
metropolis  of  the  Tamar  Rajpoots.  These  were  over- 
thrown by  the  Pathans  of  Ghazni.  Later,  in  1193,  the 
first  of  the  slave-kings  of  Delhi  ascended  the  throne. 
This  king,  Kuth-ud-din,  having  been  a  slave  of  Mo- 
hammed Ghori  of  Ghazni,  had  been  made  viceroy  and 
ultimately  became  king.     It  is  probably  in  his  honor 

208 


ORIENTAL  PALACES  AND  TOMBS    209 

that  the  Kutub  Minar,  the  great  tower  called  the  pride 
of  Delhi,  was  built,  as  its  architecture  is  pronounced 
pure  Pathan. 

The  Pathan  kings  reigned  until  1556  when,  after  sev- 
eral dynasties  of  the  Pathans,  the  Moghuls  became 
firmly  established.  Baber  was  the  first  of  the  Mogul 
kings.  He  lies  buried  in  Kabul,  but  the  tomb  of  his 
son,  Humayun,  is  outside  of  Delhi  on  the  beautiful 
road  to  the  Kutub.  It  is  of  red  sandstone  and  a  most 
beautiful  and  perfectly  preserved  building  of  the  early 
Moghul  days.  A  beautiful  story  is  told  of  Baber  and 
his  son  Humayun.  The  latter  was  dangerously  ill  and 
the  king  formed  the  loving  resolve  to  give  his  life  for 
his  son's.  He  walked  around  the  bed  three  times  and 
said :  "I  have  borne  it  away."  The  son  improved  and 
the  father  declined  from  that  day.  The  great  Akbar 
was  Humayun's  son.  He  removed  the  capital  to  Agra. 
He  seems,  on  the  whole,  to  have  been  a  wise  and  able 
ruler,  and,  judging  from  his  pictures,  which  you  may 
see  at  Delhi,  he  was  handsome  and  noble-looking.  His 
son,  Jehangir,  was  quite  different  from  his  father,  be- 
ing given  to  debauchery  and  cruelty  as  well  as  great 
intolerance  in  religion.  His  queen,  Nur  Mahall  (Light 
of  the  Palace),  afterwards  called  Nur  Jahan  (Light  of 
the  World),  was  very  influential  and  she  and  her  broth- 
ers managed  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom  with  prudence 
and  humanity.  Nur  Mahal's  history  is  like  that  of  a 
fairy-story.  She  was  of  a  noble  Persian  family  which 
had  been  reduced  to  poverty.  Her  father  emigrated  to 
India.  On  the  way  Nur  Jahan  was  born.  The  parents 
were  in  such  extremity  that  they  put  the  infant  on  the 


210  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

public  road  to  excite  compassion.  A  rich  merchant 
took  it  for  his  own,  hiring  the  mother  as  its  nurse. 
Through  this  kindness  the  family  were  introduced  at 
Akbar's  court.  Here  Jehangir  saw  the  young  and 
beautiful  girl  and  was  captivated  by  her.  His  father 
ordered  her  marriage  with  a  Persian,  Sher  Afkan. 
When  Jehanzir  became  emperor  he  tried  to  induce  Sher 
Afkan  to  divorce  Nur  Jahan.  He  refused  and,  in  the 
quarrel  that  ensued,  he  as  well  as  his  viceroy  were 
killed.  For  some  time  Nur  Jahan  would  not  listen  to 
the  emperor,  looking  upon  him  as  her  husband's  mur- 
derer, but  he  finally  prevailed  and  she  became  empress 
of  India.  Her  influence  was  unbounded  and  she  used 
it  for  good. 

Shah  Jehan  was  Jehangir's  third  son.  His  wife  was 
Mumtaz  Mahal,  for  whom  the  wonderful  Taj  at  Agra 
was  built.  After  her  death  he  could  not  endure  life 
at  Agra  and  removed  the  capital  back  to  Delhi,  where 
it  was  before  great  Akbar's  time,  eighty  years  before. 

The  fortress  and  palace  of  new  Delhi  is  said  to  have 
cost  50  lakhs  of  rupees,  or  more  than  a  million  and  a 
half  of  dollars.  In  the  great  hall,  Diwani  Am,  the 
kings  held  audience  for  all,  arranged  by  rank.  In  this 
hall  is  a  fine  throne  of  white  marble.  On  the  left  is 
the  Diwani  Khass,  or  special  hall  of  audience.  It  is  the 
finest  building  of  its  kind  in  India,  and  perhaps  in  the 
world.  Its  sides  are  open  save  for  rows  of  massive  col- 
umns on  the  four  sides.  The  dimensions  are  80x160 
feet  and  there  are  thirty-two  pillars,  some  large  and 
some  small.  All  have  rich,  fluted  edges  and  Corinthian 
capitals.    The  relief  work,  and  the  capitals  of  all  but 


ORIENTAL  PALACES  AND  TOMBS    211 

the  outer  row,  are  richly  overlaid  with  heavy  gold  leaf. 
At  one  end,  separating  the  principal  part  from  the 
women's  hall,  there  is  an  exquisite  white  marble  fret- 
work screen.  From  a  distance  it  looks  like  lace ;  even 
closely  examined  it  is  faultless.  Above  this  screen  is 
a  representation  of  the  scale  of  justice  in  relief- work, 
overlaid  with  gold.  This  entire  hall  of  white  marble, 
with  its  superb  mosaics  of  birds  and  flowers  done  in 
precious  stones,  its  frescoed  ceiling  of  fine  woods  set 
into  the  marble,  its  fluted  Moorish  arches,  is  the  most 
ornate,  perfectly  oriental  spot  imaginable.  When  the 
"Peacock  Throne"  stood  in  its  midst  it  must  have  been 
the  materialization  of  an  Arabian  Night's  dream.  Over 
the  rich  cornice  of  the  ceiling  is  the  exquisite  motto,  in 
large  Persian  letters  of  pure  gold. 


v***!  *#•)  <-Jji  V~J  V  A 


"If  there  be  an  eylsium  on  earth,  it  is  this,  it  is  this,  it  is  this !" 

The  place  is  indeed  so  beautiful  with  its  rich  orna- 
mentation and  the  exquisite  vistas  of  palm  and  flower- 
ing shrub  from  between  the  magnificent  pillars  that 
even  an  Occidental  is  fain  to  confess  it  an  Elysium  and 
echo  the  motto,  "It  is  this !  it  is  this !" 

The  palace  itself  is  a  marvel  of  beauty  and  richness, 
nor  it  is  less  opulent  in  history  and  romance.  Here,  in 
1 716,  Hamilton,  the  Scottish  surveyor,  cured  Farrokh 
Siyar  on  the  eve  of  the  latter's  marriage.     The  em- 


212  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

peror  left  it  to  the  doctor  to  name  his  reward.  He 
asked  on  behalf  of  the  deputation  from  the  small  Brit- 
ish factory  at  Calcutta  that  it  be  allowed  to  establish 
a  factory  and  to  maintain  thirty-seven  towns  on  the 
Hoogley  river.  This  was  the  foundation  of  "The  Pres- 
idency of  Fort  William"  and  all  that  came  therefrom. 

In  1739  Mohammed  Shah  entered  the  throne-room 
with  Nadir  Shah  of  Persia  and  the  two  sipped  coffee 
on  the  Peacock  Throne.  The  next  day  the  treacherous 
Persian  had  the  citizens  massacred  and  watched  the 
slaughter  from  the  terrace  of  a  mosque  in  Chandni 
Chauk,  one  of  the  great  streets  of  the  city.  He  then 
carried  away  great  booty,  among  it  being  the  Peacock 
Throne,  all  being  valued  at  £80,000,000  sterling.  In 
1803  Lake's  cavalcade  filed  into  the  Diwani  Am.  In 
1857  the  last  of  the  Moghuls  consented  to  the  butchery 
of  helpless  English  women  and  children  and  he  himself, 
the  last  of  the  line  of  Baber,  afterward  died  an  exile  in 
a  strange  land.  Chandni  Chauk,  or  Silver  Thorough- 
fare, has  lost  its  splendor,  but  we  saw  many  costly  rugs, 
much  silverware  and  carpets  of  fabulous  value  dis- 
played for  sale. 

The  Jamna  Musjid  is  called  the  greatest  mosque  in 
the  world.  The  minarets  are  one  hundred  and  thirty 
feet  high  and  the  great  courtyard  is  three  hundred  and 
ten  feet  square.  The  building  was  begun  in  1644  and 
five  thousand  workmen  were  constantly  employed  for 
six  years.  It  is  a  massive  structure  of  red  sandstone. 
The  floor  is  of  alternate  white  and  black  marble  blocks, 
each  large  enough  for  a  devout  Mussulman  to  pray 
upon.     There  are  no  seats,  as  the  Mussulman  either 


ORIENTAL  PALACES  AND  TOMBS     213 

stands  or  kneels  on  his  praying  mat.  We  were  shown 
a  piece  of  rock  containing  an  impression  of  Moham- 
med's foot,  an  old  slipper  of  the  prophet's ;  also  a  Ko- 
ran said  to  have  been  brought  from  Mecca  thirteen 
hundred  years  ago.  I  chose  to  believe  the  Koran  and 
slipper  myths,  but  rejected  the  one  about  the  rock. 

As  we  drove  out  to  the  Kutub  we  saw,  from  a  dis- 
tance, the  Kotila  of  Firoz  Shah,  with  stone  pillar.  This 
pillar  is  an  ancient  Buddhist  relic,  said  to  have  been 
brought  down  from  the  sub-Himalayan  country,  where 
the  contemporaries  of  Antiochus  and  Ptolemy  had  one 
of  their  chief  seats.  This  pillar  has  stood  for  ages 
upon  a  three-storied  structure.  It  once  had  a  globe 
and  crescent  at  the  top  and  was  gilded.  It  is  forty-two 
feet  seven  inches  high.  Its  date  is  given  as  135 1  to 
1388  B.  C.  The  inscriptions  are  well-known  edicts  of 
Asoka  (third  century,  B.  C),  but  they  must  have  been 
inscribed  later. 

On  this  same  road  we  saw  the  great  fortification  of 
Indrapat,  or  sixth  Delhi.  Inside  this  fort  is  a  fine 
mosque  of  Pathan  architecture.  This  magnificent  for- 
tification is  now  inhabited  by  10,000  low  castes.  Far- 
ther on  this  historic  road  we  saw  Hunayun's  tomb, 
built  by  his  wife  and  finished  by  Akbar,  his  son.  This 
beautiful  structure  is  of  the  earliest  Moghul  period  and 
was  built  a  century  before  the  Taj.  Its  dome  is  three- 
fourths  the  size  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  and  is  of  a  dif- 
ferent shape  to  that  of  the  Taj ;  yet  in  the  marble  dome, 
side  kiosques,  majestic  portals  and  storied  openings  and 
lofty  plinth,  it  was  clearly  the  forerunner  of  the  Taj. 
It  is  built  of  red  sandstone  and  white  marble.    From  its 


214  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

central  hall  Hodson  took  the  sons  of  the  ex-king  in 
1857  and  executed  them. 

Still  further  on  our  drive  we  visited  an  ancient  cem- 
etery called  the  Nizamuddin,  after  a  shah  buried  there. 
This  king  is  said  to  have  been  a  sorcerer  and  murderer 
of  the  secret  order,  Khorasen.  The  marble  fretwork 
screen  is  beautiful  and  the  veranda  finely  frescoed. 
Here,  too,  is  the  tomb  of  the  poet  Khusru,  built,  it  is 
said,  five  hundred  years  ago.  Khusru  was  the  author 
of  the  "Bhag  o'Bahar"  (Garden  of  Beauty),  a  book 
much  admired  for  its  exquisite  Hindustani  and  its 
voluptuous  images.  To  those  of  us  who  were  com- 
pelled to  read  it,  as  a  drill  in  the  language,  it  seemed 
so  vile  morally  that  it  was  like  driving  into  a  sea  of 
filth  to  secure  a  pearl  or  two  of  language. 

Near  this  tomb  is  an  old  mosque,  from  the  roof  of 
which,  sixty-five  feet  high,  three  divers  plunged  into  a 
tank  of  water  below.  It  looked  a  fearful  leap.  A  tomb 
not  far  from  the  mosque  was  that  of  Jahanara,  a  Begum 
and  a  famous  beauty  spoken  of  by  European  travelers. 
She  was  a  good  and  noble  woman,  called  the  "Mogul 
Cordelia."  She  requested  that  no  costly  tomb  be  placed 
above  her.  She  wished,  she  said,  to  rest  under  the 
meadow  grass  only.  A  small  space  is  open  in  the  mar- 
ble above  her  grave,  and  here  a  little  patch  of  grass  is 
kept  growing.  All  these  long  years  the  letter  of  her 
request,  but  not  the  sweet  spirit,  has  been  kept  sacred. 
She  wrote  the  following  epitaph  for  her  tomb : 

"Let  no  canopy  cover  my  grave.   This  grass  is  the 
best  covering  for  the  poor  in  spirit.   The  humble,  the 


ORIENTAL  PALACES  AND  TOMBS    215 

transitory  Jehanara,  the  disciple  of  the  holy  men  of 
Christ,  the  daughter  of  the  Emperor,  Shah  Jahan." 

Her  father  was  very  tolerant  of  all  religions  and  it  is 
said  he  was  almost  persuaded  to  become  a  Christian. 
When  the  Romish  priests  urged  him  to  confess  by  bap- 
tism his  belief  in  Christ,  he  said :  "I  find  myself  bound 
to  Mohammedanism  by  ties  which  I  am  unable  to  break 
asunder.  The  mullahs  (priests)  of  the  palace  and  the 
sultana,  my  mother,  never  cease  to  inveigh  against  the 
new  religion  which  I  protect.  I  meet  with  still  greater 
opposition  from  the  women  of  my  harem,  whose  appre- 
hension of  being  all  discarded  as  soon  as  Christianity 
shall  have  reduced  me  to  make  choice  of  a  single  com- 
panion, leads  them  to  spare  no  caresses  that  they  may 
tear  my  heart  from  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ." 

Still  farther  on  this  famous  road  we  saw  the  Janter- 
Manter,  an  old  dial  called  the  "Prince  of  Dials."  It  is 
a  huge  structure  and  was  built  in  1730  A.  D.  And  now 
we  reach  the  Kutub-Minar,  the  glory  of  Delhi  as  the 
Taj  is  of  Agra.  The  name  means  "The  Polar  Star." 
It  is  two  hundred  and  thirty-eight  feet  six  inches  high, 
forty-seven  feet  three  inches  in  diameter  below,  taper- 
ing to  a  diameter  of  nine  inches  at  the  top.  It  was  be- 
gun in  300  A.  D.  and  completed  about  1375,  having 
been  erected  in  honor  of  Kuth-ud-din,  the  first  slave- 
king.  The  tower  is  of  red  sandstone,  built  so  as  to 
show  covered  and  fluted  pillar-like  projections  all  over 
the  outside.  For  a  distance  from  the  bottom  these  out- 
lines are  rounded ;  in  the  second  and  third  sections  they 
are  alternate  pointed  flutings.    It  is  a  superb  structure. 


216  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Near  it  is  the  "Iron  Pillar  of  Asoka,"  said  to  mark 
the  center  of  the  earth.  Under  it  there  is  said  to  be 
vast  quantities  of  coin  and  numbers  of  idols.  It  is  the 
oldest  thing  in  Delhi. 

Agra,  the  other  capital  of  the  old  Moguls,  is  very 
little  to  look  at  now,  as  a  city.  Its  ancient  glory  has 
departed,  except  the  beautiful  buildings  which  have 
stood  for  several  centuries  and  will  remain  for  cen- 
turies still,  unless  forcibly  destroyed.  The  fort  is  sim- 
ply magnificent,  and  inside  it  is  the  beautiful  palace  of 
Akbar.  This  is  built  of  pure  marble,  most  elaborately 
and  exquisitely  adorned  with  mosaics  of  flowers  and 
designs  in  carnelian,  turquoise  and  other  precious 
stones.  The  most  perfectly  beautiful  spot  is  the  Jessa- 
mine Tower,  which  was  built  for  Mumtaz  Mahal,  the 
idolized  wife  of  Shah  Jahan,  the  "exalted,"  or  "cho- 
sen" of  the  palace.  Near  it  are  beautiful  terraces  en- 
closed with  marble  screens  of  such  delicate,  lace-like 
workmanship  as  to  seem  indeed  the  fabric  of  a  dream. 
This  tower,  enriched  with  its  mosaics  representing  the 
jessamine  flower  and  plant  in  most  beautiful  designs, 
overlooks  the  Jumna  river,  which  here  describes  a 
curve,  seeming  to  enclose  the  piece  of  land  on  which 
the  Taj  is  built.  So,  across  the  water,  the  beautiful 
queen  would  watch  the  Taj  rearing  its  snowy  loveliness 
to  her  memory,  and  in  this  lovely  Sumam  Burj,  with 
its  golden  dome,  would  dream  away  the  soft  moon- 
light nights,  reclining  on  silken  cushions.  Truly  every- 
thing is  luxuriant  and  oriental  in  the  extreme. 

And  the  Taj !    The  peerless  Taj !     What  shall  we 


ORIENTAL  PALACES  AND  TOMBS    217 

say  of  its  pure  outlines,  its  perfect  dome,  its  exquisite 
mosaic  work  in  precious  stones,  its  lace-like  marble 
screens,  its  matchless  symmetry! 

Thou  didst  gleam  before  our  vision's  eye, 

In  dreams  like  fair  mirage, 
And  now  before  thy  loveliness, 

Our  lips  are  dumb,  O!  Taj. 

It  is  indeed  difficult  to  describe  the  Taj.  Pictures 
can  never  do  it  justice,  and,  to  crown  all,  it  is  in  a 
garden  so  beautiful  that  the  gem  is  enhanced  by  the 
setting.  Above,  in  the  palace,  all  is  beauty,  love  and 
luxury;  while  in  the  resting-place  of  Shah  Jahan  and 
his  adored  wife,  in  this  most  beautiful  tomb  of  the 
world,  all  speaks  again  of  undying  affection,  peace  and 
beauty. 

But  what  of  the  dungeons  underground?  We  had 
to  insist  on  seeing  them  before  the  guide  would  escort 
us  down.  Then  he  opened  the  trap  door  and  we  de- 
scended. The  heat  seemed  to  grow  more  intense  as 
we  proceeded,  while  the  flare  of  torches  and  their 
smoke  reminded  one  of  some  of  Dante's  weird  imagin- 
ings. Here,  in  the  small  underground  rooms,  the 
queens  were  imprisoned  who  incurred  the  king's  dis- 
pleasure. Here  they  were  tortured  or  starved  until  it 
pleased  him  to  set  them  free,  or  else  taken  to  be  hanged 
in  the  awful  prison-room,  directly  under  the  Samam 
Burj,  or  Jessamine  Tower.  The  beam  above  the  pit 
is  beautifully  carved  and,  near  by,  is  a  little  mosque 
wherein  they  uttered  their  last  prayers.  The  pit  opened 
out  into  the  Jumna  River,  into  which  their  bodies  were 


218  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

cast  to  be  eaten  by  crocodiles.  Here,  too,  is  oriental- 
ism and  false  religion.  The  glamour  is  above,  the  aw- 
ful dungeons  below. 

Lucknow,  dating  from  1775,  was  the  capital  of 
Oudh,  which  became  a  kingdom  in  18 14  under  Ghazi- 
ud-din,  the  first  king.  It  is  chiefly  of  interest  to  tour- 
ists as  being  the  scene  of  a  siege  in  the  awful  days  of 
the  Mutiny  of  1857.  The  old  ruined  residency,  where 
Lawrence  and  his  brave  companions  held  out  for  those 
dreadful  eighty-five  days  of  siege,  tells  its  own  story  of 
shot  and  shell,  death  and  loss.  As  we  walked  through 
the  underground  room  where  three  hundred  women 
and  children  found  shelter  the  whole  awful  scene  came 
before  our  eyes.  The  little  force  intrenched,  the  thou- 
sands of  rebels  outside,  the  hourly  death,  the  awful 
suspense  until,  on  the  25th  of  September,  Outranks 
forces  came  to  the  rescue.  In  Cawnpore  there  is  a 
memorial  erected  over  the  well,  wherein  so  many 
women  and  children,  dead,  dying  and  living,  were 
thrown  by  the  order  of  the  murderous  Nana  Sahib, 
the  leader  of  the  mutineers. 

In  Lucknow  we  visited  the  grave  of  Sir  Henry 
Lawrence,  one  of  the  noblest  soldiers  and  Christians 
that  ever  lived.  Tennyson  has  immortalized  the  siege 
in  his  fine  poem  by  that  name. 

To-day  the  banner  of  England  floats  over  Delhi's 
great  fortifications  and  Agra's  equally  impregnable 
fortress — impregnable  to  all  but  Anglo-Saxon  bravery 
and  daring.  Here  in  Delhi  and  Agra,  symbols  of  Mo- 
gul magnifiecence ;  and  in  Lucknow,  of  ancient  Oudh, 
we  feel  a  thrill  of  pride  for  our  race  and  join  heartily 


ORIENTAL  PALACES  AND  TOMBS    219 

with  our  English  brothers  in  giving  honor  to  the  great 
and  brave  generals  and  men  who  won  back  all  these 
castles,  forts,  gardens  and  power  for  the  English 
crown. 

Banner  of  England!    O!  not  for  a  season  hast  thou 
Floated  in  conquering  battle  or  flapt  to  the  battle-cry. 
Never  with  mightier  glory,  than  when  we  had  reared  thee 

on  high, 
Flying  at  the  top  of  the  roofs  in  the  ghastly  siege  of  Lucknow. 
Shot  through  the  staff  or  the  halyard,  but  ever  we  raised  thee 

anew, 
And  ever  upon  the  topmost  roof  our  banner  of  England  blew. 

— Tennyson. 

This  part  of  India  is  expressive  of  the  magnificence 
we  always  connect  with  the  Orient.  In  many  other 
places  there  are  fine  castles  and  beautiful  buildings,  but 
in  contrast  to  these  is  the  prevailing  poverty  of  the 
millions  of  low-caste,  the  shut-in,  ignorant  condition 
of  the  women,  and  all  the  sluggishness  of  Eastern  life. 
With  all  its  marble  palaces  and  grand  towers  we  say 
with  the  laureate : 

Better  fifty  years  of  Europe 
Than  a  cycle  of  Cathay. 

In  Baroda  there  are  fine  palaces  belonging  to  the 
Gaekwar,  as  the  ruler  is  styled.  These,  however,  are  a 
mixture  of  oriental  and  occidental  architecture  and 
might  easily  be  the  residences  of  wealthy  persons  of 
Western  lands,  with  proclivities  for  travel  and  Eastern 
magnificence. 

The  ceilings,  frescoes,  oil  paintings,  tapestry  and 
wood  carvings  are  very  rich  and  mostly  in  excellent 
taste,  while  the  porphyry  and  feldspar  vases  in  the 


220  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

entrance  hall  are  truly  splendid ;  but  while  the  palace 
and  grounds  partake  of  so  much  Western  culture  and 
taste,  yet  the  elephant-stables  and  the  armories  are  en- 
tirely Eastern  in  prodigality  and  luxuriousness.  The 
number  of  elephants  is  often  ninety-nine,  but  never  one 
hundred,  as  that  is  considered  an  unlucky  number.  At 
the  time  of  our  visit  there  were  but  nineteen,  some  of 
them  noble  creatures.  There  is  a  house  near  the  sta- 
bles containing  the  housings  and  trappings  for  these 
regal  animals.  The  two  howdahs  meant  for  royalty  are 
overlaid  with  gold,  with  gold-embroidered  silk  hang- 
ings bordered  with  rich  fringes  of  gold.  The  other 
howdahs,  for  the  Gaekwar's  bodyguard,  are  similar, 
only  done  in  silver.  There  are  necklaces  and  anklets  of 
pure  gold  for  the  huge  animals.  Another  anklet  was 
shown  us,  made  of  iron  and  ornamented  (?)  with  sharp, 
needle- jointed  spikes  about  a  finger's  length  each,  all 
pointing  inward.  These  are  used  in  catching  the  wild 
elephants.  A  tame  decoy-elephant  is  sent  into  the  jun- 
gle and,  when  the  mahouts,  or  elephant-drivers,  see 
the  new  elephants  come  up  they  shoot  off  firecrackers 
and  guns  to  bewilder  the  poor  animals.  When  there 
is  a  good  deal  of  smoke,  one  of  the  most  adroit  man- 
ages to  fasten  one  of  these  iron  anklets  around  a  leg 
of  one  of  the  wild  creatures.  This  is  fastened  by  a 
long,  strong  chain  to  a  very  large  tree,  and,  after  sev- 
eral days  of  fasting  and  struggle,  the  poor  elephant 
gives  up  the  battle  and  obeys  its  master. 

In  the  other  armory  the  trappings  for  the  bullocks 
may  be  seen.  These  animals  draw  the  ammunition- 
wagons  and  must  present  a  fine  appearance,  in  purple, 


ORIENTAL  PALACES  AND  TOMBS    221 

scarlet  and  gold.  Even  their  horns  are  enclosed  in 
hollow  sheaths  of  gold.  The  climax  of  magnificence 
was  supposed  to  be  reached  by  the  present  Gaekwar's 
grandfather,  who  made  two  solid  silver  cannon,  hav- 
ing iron  bores.  This  man's  son,  however,  outdid  him 
by  constructing  two  solid  gold  cannon  to  establish  his 
name  and  fame. 

In  Mysore  the  palaces  are  somewhat  like  those  in 
Baroda,  partaking  very  largely  of  Western  architecture 
and  art.  The  summer  home  of  the  Rani  is  at  Ooctaca- 
mund  in  the  Nilgiri  hills.  It  is  quite  modern  in  style 
and  furnishings. 

In  Jeypore  they  are  more  oriental,  but  Delhi  and 
Agra  contain  the  only  fair  samples  of  oriental  mag- 
nificence and  regal  splendor.  Here  we  may  dream  the 
Arabian  Nights'  dream  over  again — here  revel  in  es- 
thetic beauty  and  be  filled  with  gratitude  that  we  live 
in  a  more  utilitarian  age  and  may  enjoy  this  ancient 
beauty  and  romance  at  a  safe  distance  from  the  dun- 
geons and  the  squalor  that  accompany  despotism  on 
the  left  hand,  while  fragrance,  luxury  and  pomp  step 
gaily  on  his  right. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

ABOUT  CASTE. 

The  common  belief  among  the  Hindus  as  to  the 
origin  of  the  four  great  divisions  of  caste  may  be  very 
briefly  stated.  The  Brahmins  proceeded  from  the 
mouth  of  Brahma;  the  Kshatriyas,  or  Chhatris,  as 
sometimes  spelled,  from  his  arms;  the  Vaishays  from 
his  thighs,  and  the  Sudras,  or  Shudras,  from  his  feet. 
The  extract  quoted  in  support  of  this  view  I  find  in 
a  condensed  compilation  in  regard  to  caste  prepared 
by  Sir.  J.  Murdock.  It  is  found  in  the  ninetieth  hymn 
of  the  tenth  book,  called  "Purusha  Sukta,"  or  "Hymn 
to  Purusha": 

i.  Purusha  has  a  thousand  heads,  a  thousand 
eyes,  a  thousand  feet. 

6.  When  the  gods  performed  a  sacrifice,  with 
Purusha  as  the  oblation,  the  Spring  was  its  butter,  the 
Summer  its  fuel  and  the  Autumn  its  offering.  This 
victim,  Purusha,  born  in  the  beginning,  they  im- 
molated on  the  sacrificial  grass ;  with  him  the  gods, 
the  Sadhyas  and  the  Rishis  sacrificed. 

11.  When  (the  gods)  Purusha,  into  how  many 
parts  did  they  cut  him?  What  was  his  mouth? 
What  arms  (had  he)  ?  What  (two  objects)  are  said 
(to  have  been)  his  thighs  and  feet? 

12.  The  Brahmin  was  the  mouth;  the  Rajanya 
was  made  his  arms;  the  being  (called)  the  Vaishya, 
he  was  his  thighs ;  the  Sudra  sprang  from  his  feet. 

13.  The  moon  sprang  from  his  soul,  the  sun  from 
his  eye,  Indra  and  Agni  from  his  mouth,  and  Vayu 

222 


ABOUT  CASTE  223 

from  his  breath.  From  his  navel  arose  the  air,  from 
his  head  the  sky,  from  his  feet  the  earth,  from  his 
ear  the  four  greatest. 

In  this  manner  (the  gods)  formed  the  worlds. 

This  hymn  is,  however,  considered  one  of  the  lat- 
est of  the  Vedic  hymns  and  (probably)  belongs  to 
the  Brahmana  period ;  hence  it  may  have  been  written 
to  suit  existing  orders  or  classes.  Manu  also  gives  a 
similar  account  of  the  origin  of  caste.  In  the  "Mah- 
abharata,"  one  of  the  most  voluminous  of  the  Hindu 
books,  a  different  account  is  given.  Here  it  is  stated 
that  the  world,  being  created  by  Brahma,  the  people 
were  all  Brahmins,  but  became  separated  by  occupa- 
tion and  by  high  or  low  moral  character  into  the  four 
great  castes.  In  another  part  of  the  same  book  the  cre- 
ation of  caste  is  ascribed  to  Krishna.  In  still  another 
"Purana"  the  "Krita  age"  is  described  as  having  only 
one  caste.  All  this  contradiction  and  confusion  gave 
rise  to  one  of  the  truest  remarks  in  the  "Mahabharata," 
which  is:  "Contradictory  are  the  Vedas;  contradic- 
tory are  the  Shastras;  contradictory  all  the  doctrines 
of  the  holy  sages."  Yet  with  all  the  inconsistency  and 
even  absurdity  of  these  various  accounts,  Hindus  be- 
lieve firmly  in  the  divine  institution  of  caste. 

Although  scholars  have  proved  without  doubt  that 
the  European  races  and  the  Aryans  have  all  come  from 
the  same  place  and  at  one  time  lived  together  as 
brothers,  yet  the  Hindu  still  regards  the  European 
as  an  unclean  Mlechcha.  Outward  honor  is  given  all 
over  India  to  the  sahib  log  as  the  ruling  race,  but  in- 
wardly they  throw  contempt  upon  us.    They  despise 


224  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

our  meat-eating  habits;  yet  from  their  own  Sanskrit 
texts  Sir  Monier  Williams  proves  the  Aryans  to  have 
been  a  meat-eating,  even  beef-eating,  people.  In  the 
Vishnu  Purana  we  find,  says  Monier  Williams,  that 
the  eating  of  meat  was  once  universal  in  India. 

The  true  origin  of  caste,  according  to  Dr.  Muir 
and  Max  Miiller,  was  when  the  Aryans  (now  Hindus) 
first  came  from  their  Central  Asian  home,  down 
through  the  Hindu  Kush,  into  Kabul,  and  thence  into 
India.  Here  they  found  the  aborigines,  who  were 
darker  in  color  than  the  Aryans  and  had  less  promi- 
nent and  beautiful  noses.  These  tribes  were  the  ene- 
mies, the  dasyus,  of  the  Aryans;  and,  as  so  many 
dasyus  became  enslaved,  the  term  dasa  was  applied  to 
a  servant.  These  dasyus  are  spoken  of  in  the  Aryan 
books  as  "eaters  of  raw  flesh,"  as  "black  skins,"  etc., 
and  even  referred  to  as  demons.  The  subdued  aborigi- 
nal tribes  became  the  Sudras,  the  three  twice-born 
classes  belonging  by  blood  to  the  Aryans.  These  three 
classes  were  distinguished  by  their  occupations — wor- 
shiping the  gods,  fighting  enemies  and  cultivating  the 
soil.  Those  who  memorized  the  hymns  essential  at 
sacrifice  or  at  other  ceremonies  and  at  the  beginning 
of  battles  managed  to  impress  the  people  with  the 
belief  that  the  slightest  mistake  in  pronouncing  the 
words  of  these  hymns  would  rouse  the  anger  of  the 
gods.  Thus  they  succeeded  in  monopolizing  the  re- 
ligious ceremonies  and  forming  a  class  by  themselves, 
whose  favor  was  courted  and  whose  anger  was 
dreaded  by  a  credulous  race. 


ABOUT  CASTE  225 

However,  in  many  places  in  the  Vedas  we  find 
kings  acting  as  priests  at  sacrifices.  One  king  is  quoted 
by  Murdock  (Vivas  mitra)  who,  though  a  Kshatriya, 
yet  contributed  hymns  to  the  Rig- Veda,  which  shows 
how  little  importance  was  attached  to  caste  at  that 
time.  In  later  times  the  Brahmins,  in  order  to  uphold 
their  system,  maintained  that  this  king  was  admitted 
into  a  Brahminic  family. 

Manu,  too,  the  great  lawgiver,  whose  strictures  in 
regard  to  caste,  and  the  treatment  of  widows  and  the 
position  of  women,  are  cruelty  and  bigotry  embodied, 
was  himself  of  the  Kshatriya,  or  warrior-class,  by 
birth. 

Some  Aryans,  it  is  claimed,  would  not  submit  to 
the  laws  laid  down  more  and  more  stringently  for  the 
governing  and  classifying  of  the  three  estates  of  the 
twice-born,  and  these  were  known  simply  as  tribes 
(vratyas). 

Those  of  the  aborigines  who  conformed  to  the 
Brahminic  law  were  constituted  a  fourth,  or  foot-caste 
(the  sudras),  while  the  other  aborigines  still  continued 
to  be  called  dasyus. 

The  struggle,  according  to  eminent  writers  on 
Vedic  law,  was  long  and  bitter  between  the  two  high- 
est castes.  In  the  time  of  Manu,  however,  the  Brah- 
mins were  far  superior  to  the  warrior  class,  before 
whom,  a  few  centuries  earlier,  they  used  to  fawn  and 
cringe.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  they  have  held  their  po- 
sition to  the  present  day,  and,  while  many  cruel  laws 
and  regulations  have  been  abolished  under  English 


226  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

power,  yet  the  Brahmin  rules  and  sways  India  in  a 
most  tyrannical  manner  through  the  blighting  caste 
system.  Manu  says  the  mixed  castes,  the  almost  end- 
less subdivisions  and  resubdivisions,  came  into  exist- 
ence through  marriages  between  the  four  original 
castes.  But  Max  Miiller  thinks  they  originated  in 
occupations  and  professions,  trades,  etc.  It  is  this 
system  which  now  holds  sway  in  society.  One  of  the 
possible  good  effects  of  such  a  system,  Monier  Will- 
iams points  out,  is  the  feasibility  of  governing  such  a 
people,  since,  being  so  widely  separated  by  caste  bar- 
riers, political  fusion  and  therefore  combined  opposi- 
tion are  rendered  very  difficult. 

Many  other  reasons  for  the  subdivision  of  caste 
are  given,  as  jealousy  between  rival  families,  clan- 
government,  causing  clans  belonging  to  the  same  caste, 
and  sectarian  differences  as  to  new  gods,  new  rites 
and  new  dogmas.  Many  able  writers  have  devoted 
years  of  study  to  this  subject,  and  our  only  aim  has 
been  to  give  in  brief  some  of  the  conclusions  arrived 
at  by  such  writers  as  Dr.  John  Muir;  Dr.  Wilson,  of 
Bombay,  who  published  two  large  volumes  on  this 
subject;  Mr.  Sherring,  of  Benares,  who  gave  very  de- 
tailed information  as  to  caste  and  its  workings  in  three 
quarto  volumes,  and  Sir  J.  Murdock,  who  has  com- 
piled quotations  from  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindus 
and  from  eminent  writers  on  this  theme.  To  compre- 
hend something  of  the  complexity  of  this  subject  and 
the  almost  endless  ramifications  into  which  it  leads, 
the  following  condensed  table,  which  I  have  prepared 


ABOUT  CASTE  227 

from  the  Census  Report  of  1898  for  the  Central  Prov- 
inces alone,  may  be  of  some  assistance : 

CASTES   IN  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES. 

dominent  or  military. 

Main  Class.  Sub-div. 

I.  Girasia   

a.  Giyar    5  Sub-divisions 

3.  Gat  

4.  Kondarazula  

5.  Maratha 

6.  Rajput    25  Sub-divisions 

7.  Sikh    

Cultivators. 

1.  Agamudayan    

2.  Agharia    

3.  Alia    

4.  Are   , 1  Sub-division 

5.  Agawar    

6.  Balya 

7.  Banka  

8.  Bare    

9.  Bargah  

10.  Bishnoc    

11.  Bhoyar  2  Sub-divisions 

12.  Burman  and  Shan  tribes 

13.  Chasa    

14.  Cherwa    

15.  Dangi    3  Sud-divisions 

16.  Deswalii    i  Sub-division 

17.  Dora   

18.  Ghogia    

19.  Gurdi    

20.  Kachhi    4  Sub-divisions 

21.  Kalanga   

22.  Kalaryi   

23.  Kamaria    

24.  Kamma    


228  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

25.  Kapewar   , 1  Sub-division 

26.  Kapri 

27.  Kawar 4  Sub-divisions 

28.  Kaonra  

29.  Khandait    

30.  Kir    

31.  Kirar    1  Sub-division 

32.  Kisan    

33.  Kuda 

34.  Kahli    

35-  Kolta    

36.  Knubi  or  Kurni :  10  Sub-divisions 

37.  Lodha  

38.  Lodhi    8  Sub-divisions 

39.  Londhari    

40.  Machnaik    

41.  Mali 4  Sub-divisions 

42.  Mana 

43.  Marar  5  Sub-divisions 

44.  Miarori    

45.  Mowar 

46.  Murai   

47-  Paik 

48.  Panara    

49.  Reddi 

50.  Sipti 

Si.  Sudh  

52.  Sunkar 

53-  Uria 

54.  Velama . . 

55.  Vellalar   

Main  Castes.  Sub-div. 

Graziers,  etc   15  11 

Farm  laborers 25  11 

Forest  and  Hill  tribes 34  44 

Priests — Brahmins  and  Dhami   2  28 

Devotees   29  11 

Temple  servants 4 

Genealogists  2 

Writers 7  3 

Astrologers  and  quacks 6 

Musicians  and  reciters   8 


ABOUT  CASTE  229 

Dancers  and  singers  7 

Actors  and  mimics 4 

Traders  : 13  16 

Pedlars    4 

Carriers  1  " 

Goldsmiths  4  7 

Barbers   6 

Blacksmiths   3  5 

Carpenters  and  masons 15  7 

Brass  and  copper  smiths 10 

Tailors 3 

Grain  parchers  and  confectioners 3 

Perfumers,    drug    sellers    and    betel    leaf 

sellers 7  3 

Weavers,  dyers,  etc 27  5 

Washermen 1 

Cotton  cleaners 3 

Shepherds  and  wool  weavers 3  8 

Oil  pressers  1  14 

Potters    1 

Glass  and  bangle  workers 3 

Salt  workers I 

Gold  washers 1 

Iron  smelters 4 

Fishermen,  boatmen,  cooks,  water  bearers, 

etc 18 

Distillers  and  toddy  drawers  7  II 

Butchers    3 

Leather  workers 9 

Village  watchmen   15 

Earth  workers  and  stone  dressers 12 

Scavengers   5  1 

Knife  grinders   1 

Mat-makers,  workers  in  cane,  grass  cutters.  19  1 

Hunters,  fowlers,  etc 6 

Miscellaneous  and  disreputable  livers 11 

Tumblers  and  acrobats 13 

Jugglers,  snake  charmers  and  animal  exhib- 
itors     7 

Is  it  any  wonder,  in  this  bewildering  maze,  to  find 
a  lady  from  South  India  calmly  declaring  that  "down 
that  way,"  as  she  expressed  it,  the  Sudras  were  higher 
than  the  Brahmins? 


23o  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

According  to  good  authority,  the  main  divisions  of 
the  four  great  castes  are  as  follows-: 

Brahmin       (Priestly 

caste)    

Dubai,  Pau,  Gaur,  Jhujatia,. 
Sanoria,  Kanauzia,  Kaththia, 
Choba. 

Kshatriya  or  Chhatri 
(Warrior  caste) . . 
Rajput,  Jat,  Ghuhar,   Thakur, 
Sikh,  Lodhi,  Raj  Gond,  Gujar 
and  Kyast. 

Vaishyas  (Trades- 
men &  Artisans). 
Bania,       Parwar,      Aggarwal, 
Ninu,    Kirar,    Sumar,   Khattri, 
Baguam,       Kutwar,       Chivar, 
Mahra. 

Sudra  or  Shudra 
(Laboring  &  Ser- 
vant caste  &  lower 

craftsmen)  

Kusta,  Kurmi,  Dhobi,  Bharga, 
Lohar,  Kumbhar,  Ahir,  Qual, 
Gadarya,  Kangar,  Sansiya, 
Gidhya,  Nat,  Bazigar,  Chumar, 
Balahi,  Kuch-bandia,  Mang, 
Dher,  Basor,  Bhangi. 

Some  authorities  put  the  last  four  outside  the  pale 
of  caste  altogether.  In  many  parts  of  India  the  names 
would  be  quite  different,  just  as  in  different  parts  of 
India  the  rules  governing  the  same  castes  are  very  un- 
like. 

Sir  Monier  Williams  remarks  that  the  lower  castes 
are  not  unhappy,  and,  strange  to  say,  none  are  greater 
sticklers  for  their  caste  observances.  I  am  myself  in- 
clined far  more  to  the  opinion  expressed  by  Raja  Sir 


ABOUT  CASTE  231 

T.  Madhava  Row,  K.  C.  S.  L,  and  quoted  in  Sir  John 

Murdochs  pamphlet: 

The  longer  one  lives,  observes  and  thinks,  the 
more  deeply  does  he  feel  that  there  is  no  community 
on  the  face  of  the  earth  which  suffers  less  from  polit- 
ical evils  nor  more  from  self-inflicted  or  self-accepted 
or  self-created,  and,  therefore,  avoidable  evils,  than 
the  Hindu  community 

The  second  expression  especially  suits  the  condi- 
tion in  India — namely,  self-accepted.  They  are  born 
into  these  conditions  and  are  taught  the  precepts  and 
rules  of  their  caste  from  infancy.  Scarcely  a  famine 
waif,  picked  up  and  sheltered  during  the  two  famines 
of  1897  and  1900,  even  though  the  age  was  no  more 
than  four  years,  and  though  emaciated  to  a  skeleton, 
but  could  on  inquiry  tell  its  jat  (caste). 

On  all  sides  you  see  the  observance  of  minute  caste 
rules.  A  child  strikes  its  foot  against  a  stone  and  im- 
mediately makes  an  obeisance  and  salaam  to  the  stone 
to  propitiate  the  spirit  possessing  it.  A  man  proceeds 
to  go  down  a  well,  but  not  until  he  performs  puja 
(worship)  to  the  rope  so  that  it  may  not  break  and 
precipitate  him  below.  You  offer  some  bread  or  food 
to  a  hungry  child ;  he  refuses,  but  implores  you  to  give 
him  money,  as  he  can  buy  raw  grain  and  prepare  it 
himself,  so  it  will  not  be  contaminated  by  your  touch. 
Your  cordial  hand-shake  is  refused  by  the  zenana 
women  for  fear  it  may  entail  an  extra  bath  of  purifica- 
tion before  they  can  prepare  the  next  meal.  Many 
castes  dare  not  even  receive  a  picture  card  from  your 
hands.  You  must  first  lay  it  down,  and  then  the  other 
is  free  to  lift  it  up  and  enjoy  it.  And  so  it  goes  through 
all  the  minutiae  of  the  daily  duties. 


232  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

At  one  time  there  was  a  severe  struggle  between 
the  Brahmins  on  one  side  and  the  Buddhists  and  Jains 
on  the  ctfher,  the  two  latter  being  opposed  to  caste. 
When  the  Brahmins  triumphed  they  made  many  laws 
stricter  than  before.  Marriages  permitted  by  Manu 
were  forbidden,  making  it  impossible  for  pure  castes 
to  intermarry  with  mixed  castes,  and  the  different 
subdivisions  of  the  same  castes  were  kept  aloof  from 
each  other  as  if  they  were  distinct  castes.  Mr.  Sher- 
ring,  of  Benares,  enumerates  nearly  two  thousand 
subdivisions  of  Brahmins.  They  are  engaged  in  all 
sorts  of  employments,  from  the  haughty  priests  of 
Benares  to  the  potato-»grawers  of  Orissa,  who  are  de- 
scribed by  Sir  William  Hunter  as  half-naked  peasants 
with  a  filthy  little  Brahminical  thread  over  their  shoul- 
ders. 

There  are  many  defenders  of  caste  in  India.  Very 
often  some  of  the  most  energetic  are  educated  men  of 
the  Hindu  community.  Some  may  and  do  deride  the 
6ystem ;  yet,  as  has  been  said,  such  a  one  may  become 
a  veritable  Demosthenes  in  eloquence,  only  to  sink  into 
quiet  submission  to  all  the  requirements  of  a  super- 
stitious family  in  private. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  it  are  cleanliness,  pro- 
tection, division  of  labor,  respect  for  authority  and 
moral  restraint.  "Cleanliness"  does  not  necessarily 
accompany  ceremonial  purity,  as  witness  the  use  of 
cow's  urine  and  dung  as  purifying  agencies.  "Pro- 
tection" in  sickness  or  distress,  so  far  as  it  comes  from 
caste-fellows,  is  a  very  unimportant  consideration  as 
observed  in  India.     The  Panchayat  is  very  quick  to 


ABOUT  CASTE  233 

punish  caste  infringements,  but  exceedingly  slow  to 
extend  the  helping  hand.  A  man  may  be  sentenced 
to  give  an  expensive  dinner  to  his  fellow-caste  men 
(compulsory  hospitality)  for  drinking  from  a  low- 
caste  man's  cup  or  taking  food  from  a  European ;  but 
that  same  man  may  die  in  extreme  want,  with  never 
a  hand  to  aid  him  from  among  his  own  people.  Should 
a  Good  Samaritan  of  a  Christian  doctor  care  for  and 
feed  him,  he  will  be  excommunicated  for  accepting 
this  help.  Should  he  recover  he  will  be  compelled 
to  give  a  dinner  to  recover  his  caste.  So  great  is  the 
fear  of  ostracism  that  he  may  apply  to  the  very  Chris- 
tian who  helped  him  to  give  him  the  means  of  giving 
the  dinner  which  is  to  purify  him  from  the  pollution 
caused  by  receiving  food  and  care  from  his  "unclean" 
benefactor.  "Division  of  labor"  is  accomplished  in 
other  countries  without  the  tyranny  of  such  a  system. 
"Respect  for  authority"  in  this  case  is  degraded  cring- 
ing to  a  power  felt  to  be  supreme,  yet  proceeding  from 
one  class  of  men — the  Brahmins.  "Moral  restraint" 
means  really  "caste  restraint,"  for  things  sinful  in  the 
sight  of  a  holy  God  may  be  allowed  and  trivial  things 
condemned  as  heinous  caste  crimes.  During  the 
Mutiny  of  1857  Nana  Sahib,  at  Cawnpore,  sent  cruel 
men  to  murder  helpless  English  women  and  children 
and  acted  in  the  most  shameful  and  treacherous  man- 
ner toward  those  he  had  promised  to  protect.  All  this 
did  not  pollute  him,  but  had  he  spared  a  little  English 
girl  and  taken  from  her  hands  a  drink  of  pure  water 
he  would  at  once  have  been  expelled  from  caste. 


234  MOSAICS  PROM  INDIA. 

Over  against  the  supposed  good  results  of  caste 
we  have,  from  the  writers  on  Indian  reform,  both 
native  gentlemen  and  great  English  authorities,  the 
following  evil  effects  attributed  to  caste :  Physical  de- 
generacy, owing  to  the  narrowing  circles  wherein 
marriage  is  permitted,  and  also  the  laws  enjoining  in- 
fant-marriage. Intellectual  ambition  smothered.  If 
all  Hindu  literature  is  considered  part  of  religion,  and 
the  Brahmins  alone  estimated  fit  to  read  and  teach  it, 
intellectual  stagnation  must  follow,  not  only  in  other 
castes,  but  to  an  alarming  extent  among  the  Brahmins 
themselves.  When  knowledge  is  insured  in  perpetuity 
to  one  class,  it  is  no  longer  their  interest  to  increase 
it,  but  rather  to  grow  indolent  and  subsist  by  cheating 
and  deluding  the  masses. 

Thousands  of  Hindus  would  gladly  help  to  institute 

social  reforms,  but  caste  ostracism  has  its  terrors  for 

even  such  enlightened  men.     Sir  Monier  Williams,  in 

his  book  on  "Brahminism   and  Hinduism,"   gives   a 

striking  account  showing  how  caste  is  the  foe  of  social 

reforms.    He  says: 

When  I  was  in  Gujerat,  in  1875,  a  man  named 
Lalla-Bhai,  a  cloth  merchant  of  Ahmedabad,  was 
proved  to  have  committed  a  heinous  caste-crime.  He 
had  married  a  widow  of  his  own  caste,  and  to  marry 
a  widow  is,  in  the  eyes  of  a  Hindu,  a  most  awful  of- 
fense. A  woman  once  married  belongs  to  one  hus- 
band for  time  and  eternity.  Forthwith  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  complete  excommunication.  No  one,  either 
of  his  own,  or  any  other  caste,  was  to  be  allowed  to 
associate  with  him;  no  one  was  to  have  any  trade 
dealings  with  him;  no  one  was  to  marry  any  of  his 
children;  no  temple  was  to  receive  him  as  a.  wor- 
shiper ;  and  if  he  died,  no  one  was  to  carry  his  body 
to  the  burning-ground.  On  the  morning  after  the 
sentence  was  passed  he  went  to  the  Bazaar  as  usual, 


ABOUT  CASTE  235 

but  not  a  person  would  buy  from  him  or  sell  to  him ; 
he  could  get  no  home  to  live  in  and  none  of  his 
debtors  would  pay  him  their  debts.  It  was  impossible 
to  sue  them,  as  no  one  would  give  evidence.  He  was 
a  ruined  man,  and  had  to  leave  the  country,  and 
obtain  government  employment  in  a  distant  city. 

Nationality  cannot  exist  in  such  a  conflicting  state 
of  society.  Sir  J.  Murdock  describes  caste  conflicts 
in  South  India,  where  the  hold  of  caste  is  said  to  be 
the  strongest.  These  often  occur  elsewhere,  and,  when 
stopping  short  of  contests,  smouldering  hatred  and 
contempt  are  cherished.  Hinduism  and  caste  are  in- 
separable ;  therefore  all  the  evil  results  of  class  hatred, 
indifference  to  suffering  and  many  other  evils  are  fos- 
tered and  consecrated  by  religion.  Someone  has  said : 
"The  spirit  of  caste  wiH  never  die."  We  see  something 
of  it  in  other  countries;  but  outside  of  India  all  re- 
formers can  appeal  to  religion  as  opposed  to  such  en- 
mity among  brothers  of  the  same  human  family.  Here 
all  the  forces  and  precepts  of  religion  are  on  the  side 
of  antagonism  and  oppression.  Dreadful  stories  of 
neglect  can  be  gathered  from  all  parts  of  India.  Trav- 
elers are  left  to  die  for  want  of  water,  because  the  jat 
or  caste  of  the  man  is  not  known,  and  on  the  roads 
leading  to  sacred  shrines  many  whitening  bones  testify 
to  the  cruelty  of  a  system  which  so  completely  ignores 
the  brotherhood  of  man. 

Some  maintain  that  the  lower  castes  are  not  un- 
happy; some  likewise  deny  that  the  women  of  India 
are  unhappy.  We  see  much  to  contradict  both  asser- 
tions in  the  caste  conflicts  before  mentioned — the  as- 
sumption of  caste  in  South  India  by  Dravidian,  Tura- 
nian or  Scythian  peoples;  the  efforts  of  even  many 


236  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Christian  converts  to  retain  rank  of  former  caste,  if 
High,  and  to  claim  as  high  a  former  caste  as  possible. 
"Manufactured  Brahmins"  in  the  north  are  cited  by 
Hunter,  and  in  South  India  Dr.  Burnell  says  he  knows 
families  claiming  to  be  Brahmins,  and  called  so,  who 
from  inscriptions  can  be  proved  to  have  been  Jains 
five  hundred  years  ago.  All  these  things  prove  that 
sorest  discontent  and  even  rebellion  are  rife.  But 
even  if  content,  their  very  content  proves  their  degra- 
dation. How  can  men  be  content  to  be  considered 
unclean  and  vile  and  in  some  castes  ranked  beneath 
even  the  brutes  ? 

The  Brahmin  arrogates  to  himself  even  godlike 
powers.  Witness  the  verse  translated  from  the  San- 
skrit : 

The  whole  world  is  under  the  power  of  the  gods ; 
The  gods  are  under  the  power  of  the  mantras; 
The  mantras  are  under  the  power  of  the  Brahmin ; 
The  Brahmin  is  therefore  our  God. 

With  such  ideas,  how  can  justice  prevail  between 
man  and  man  ?  All  these  evils  are  common  through- 
out India,  but  probably  the  worst  abuse  comes  to  pass 
in  the  "Kulinism"  of  Bengal.  A  king  named  Ballala 
Sen,  a  reputed  son  of  the  Brahmaputra  River,  gave  the 
title  of  Kul,  or  honorable,  to  certain  Brahmins.  Brah- 
mins of  a  lower  order  are  most  anxious  to  get  a  Kulin 
son-in-law.  Hence  large  sums  are  paid  them  to  marry 
their  daughters.  There  are  Kulins  with  twenty,  fifty, 
or  even  a  hundred  wives.  But  the  marriage  of  Kulin 
females  is  cruelly  stringent.  These  must  not  on  any 
account  be  given  to  any  unless  they  are  of  an  equal  or 
superior  grade.    The  poor  Kulin  father  is  often  in  the 


ABOUT  CASTE  237 

greatest  difficulty.  He  cannot  allow  his  daughter  to 
marry  anyone  of  a  lower  grade;  he  cannot  afford  to 
purchase  a  husband  in  his  own.  It  would  be  a  great 
disgrace  to  allow  her  to  remain  unmarried.  His  only 
resource  is  to  appeal  to  some  decrepit  old  Kulin  Brah- 
min, who  has  already  a  multitude  of  wives,  to  save  the 
honor  of  the  girl  and  her  family  by  adding  one  more 
wife  to  his  lot.  Kulin  polygamy  carries  with  it  a  li- 
cense to  indulge,  to  an  almost  unlimited  extent,  the 
vilest  passions  of  human  nature,  carrying  in  its  train 
untold  misery,  suffering  and  crime.  It  is,  indeed, 
"hallowing  wrong  by  the  authority  and  sanction  of  re- 
ligion." 

It  is  pointed  out  in  Sir  J.  Murdock's  pamphlet  on 
caste  that  even  the  British  Government  seems  to  sanc- 
tion and  abet  caste  distinctions  by  reporting  in  its 
census  tables  all  the  different  divisions  and  subdivis- 
ions, which  could  safely  be  ignored;  also  by  entering 
caste  distinctions  in  other  public  documents  and  mak- 
ing inquiries  in  court  about  caste.  Should  govern- 
ment ignore  this  question,  especially  in  giving  posts  of 
employment  to  applicants,  and  consider  qualifications 
only,  a  great  disintegrating  factor  would  be  introduced 
into  the  system. 

To  close  with  a  few  of  the  laws  of  many  regard- 
ing caste  will  probably  be  the  best  commentary  on  this 
powerful  system,  which  rules  India  with  a  rod  of  iron. 
These  quotations,  as  well  as  the  most  of  the  material 
used  in  this  chapter,  are  taken  from  Sir  J.  Murdock's 
compilation  regarding  caste.  The  works  of  Manu,  said 
to  have  originally  consisted  of  one  thousand  chapters 


238  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

and  one  hundred  thousand  slokas,  or  proverbs,  have 
been  reduced  to  twelve  thousand ;  these  to  four  thou- 
sand, and  then  to  two  thousand,  six  hundred  and 
eighty-five.    A  few  quotations  are  given: 

BRAHMINS. — THEIR    CLAIMS. 

92.  Man  is  declared  purer  above  the  navel ;  therefore 
the  purest  (part)  of  him  is  said,  by  the  Self-Exist- 
ent, to  be  his  mouth. 

93.  Since  he  sprang  from  the  most  excellent  part,  since 
he  was  the  firstborn,  and  since  he  holds  the  Vedas, 
the  Brahmin  is,  by  right,  the  lord  of  all  this  crea- 
tion. 

94.  His,  the  Self-Existent,  after  having  performed  pen- 
ance, created  in  the  beginning  from  his  own  mouth, 
for  presentation  of  oblations  to  the  gods  and  offer- 
ings to  the  manes  (and)  for  the  preservation  of  all 
this   (world). 

95.  What  being  is  there  superior  to  him,  by  whose 
mouth  the  gods  eat  oblations  and  the  manes  offer- 
ings? 

98.  The  birth  of  a  Brahmin  is  a  perpetual  incarnation 
of  dharma,  for  he  exists  for  the  sake  of  dharma, 
and  is  for  the  existence  of  the  Vedas.  (Dharma 
means  religion  or  sanctity.) 

99.  When  the  Brahmin  is  born  he  is  born  above  the 
world,  the  chief  of  all  creatures,  to  guard  the 
treasures  of  dharma. 

100.  Thus,  whatever  exists  in  the  universe  is  all  the  prop- 
erty of  the  Brahmin;  for  the  Brahmin  is  entitled 
to  all  by  his  superiority  and  eminence  of  birth. 

101.  The  Brahmin  eats  his  alone;  wears  his  own  and 
gives  away  his  own;  through  the  benevolence  of 
the  Brahmin,  indeed,  the  other  people  enjoy  (all 
they  have).     (Book  I.) 

PUNISHMENTS  OF  BRAHMINS. 

379.  Shaving  the  head  is  ordained  as  (equivalent  of) 
capital  punishment  in  the  case  of  a  Brahmin,  but 
in  the  case  of  other  castes,  capital  punishment  may 
be  (inflicted). 

380.  Certainly  (the  king)  should  not  slay  a  Brahmin 
even  if  he  be  occupied  in  crime  of  every  sort,  but 
he  should  put  him  out  of  the  realms  in  possession 
of  all  his  property  and  uninjured  (in  body). 


ABOUT  CASTE  239 

381.    No  greater  wrong  is  found  on  earth  than  killing  a 
Brahmin;  therefore  the  king  should  not  even  men- 
tally consider  his  death.     (Book  VIII.) 
The  atonement  for  killing  a  Sudra  is  the  same  as 
for  killing  the  following  animals : 

132.  On  killing  a  cat,  an  ichneumon,  a  daw,  or  a  frog,  a 
dog,  a  lizard,  an  owl,  or  a  crow,  he  should  practice 
the  observance  (ordained  for)  killing  a  Sudra. 
(Book  XL) 

SUDRAS. — CREATED   FOR    SERVITUDE. 

91.  One  duty  the  Lord  assigned  to  a  Sudra — service  to 
those  (before  mentioned)  classes,  without  grudg- 
ing.    (Book  XL) 

413.  But  a  Sudra,  whether  bought  or  not  bought,  the 
Brahmin  may  compel  to  practice  servitude ;  for  that 
Sudra  was  created  by  the  Self-Existent  merely  for 
the  service  of  the  Brahmin. 

414.  Even  if  freed  by  his  master,  the  Sudra  is  not  re- 
leased from  servitude;  for  this  (servitude)  is  innate 
in  him.     Who  then  can  take  it  from  him? 

410.  The  king  should  make  the  Sudra  (act)  as  the  slave 
of  those  who  are  twice-born.     (Book  VIII.) 

123.  Merely  to  serve  the  Brahmins  is  declared  to  be 
most  excellent  occupation  of  a  Sudra;  for  if  he 
does  anything  other  than  this,  it  profits  him  noth- 
ing. 

129.  Indeed,  an  accumulation  of  wealth  should  not  be 
made  by  a  Sudra  even  (if  he  is)  able  (to  do  so), 
for  a  Sudra  getting  possession  of  wealth  merely 
ignores  the  Brahmin.     (Book  X.) 

417.  A  Brahmin  may  take  possession  of  the  goods  of  a 
Sudra  with  perfect  peace  of  mind,  for,  since  nothing 
at  all  belongs  to  this  Sudra,  as  his  own,  he  is  one 
whose  property  may  be  taken  away  by  his  master. 
(Book  VIII.) 

REWARD  OF  SERVITUDE. 

125.  The  leavings  of  food  should  be  given  him  and  the 
old  clothes ;  so,  too,  the  blighted  part  of  the  grain ; 
so,  too,  the  old  furniture. 

PUNISHMENT  OF   SUDRAS. 

270.  If  a  man  of  low  birth  assault  one  of  the  twice-born 
castes  with  violent  words,  he  ought  to  have  his 
tongue  cut  out,  for  he  is  of  the  lowest  origin. 


240  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

271.  If  he  make  mention  in  an  insulting  manner  of  their 
name  and  caste,  a  red-hot  iron  rod,  ten  fingers  long, 
should  be  thrust  in  his  mouth. 

272.  If  this  man,  through  insolence,  gives  instruction  to 
the  priests  in  regard  to  their  duty,  the  king  should 
cause  hot  oil  to  be  poured  into  his  mouth  and  ear. 

279.  If  a  man  of  the  lowest  birth  should  with  any  mem- 
ber ignore  one  of  the  highest  station,  even  that  mem- 
ber of  this  man* shall  be  cut  off.  This  is  an  ordinance 
of  Manu. 

280.  If  he  lift  up  his  hand  or  his  staff  (against  him) 
he  ought  to  have  his  head  cut  off ;  and  if  he  smites 
him  with  his  foot  in  anger,  he  ought  to  have  his  foot 
cut  off. 

281.  If  a  low-born  man  endeavor  to  sit  down  by  the  side 
of  a  high-born  man,  he  should  be  banished  after 
being  branded  on  the  hip,  or  the  king  may  cause 
his  backside  to  be  cut  off. 

282.  If  through  insolence  he  spit  upon  him,  the  king 
should  cause  his  two  lips  to  be  cut  off. 

283.  If  he  seize  him  by  the  locks,  let  the  king  without 
hesitation  cause  both  of  his  hands  to  be  cut  off. 
(Book  VIII.) 

TREATMENT  OF  CERTAIN  CASTES. 

57.  The  dwelling  of  Chandalas  and  Swapacas  should 
be  outside  the  village ;  they  should  be  deprived  of 
dishes;  their  property  consists  of  dogs  and  asses. 

52.  Their  clothes  should  be  the  garments  of  the  dead 
and  their  food  should  be  in  broken  dishes;  their 
ornaments  should  be  of  iron  and  they  must  con- 
stantly wander  about. 

53.  A  man  who  practices  the  rules  of  right  should  not 
desire  intercourse  with  these  people;  their  business 
transactions  must  be  among  each  other  and  their 
marriages  should  be  only  with  their  equals. 

54.  Their  food  (for  which  they  are)  dependent  on 
others,  should  be  given  in  a  broken  dish ;  they 
should  not  wander  by  night  among  the  villages  and 
towns.     (Book   X.) 

SUDRAS  NOT  TO  RECEIVE  RELIGIOUS  INSTRUCTION. 

80.  One  may  not  give  advice  to  a  Sudra,  nor  (give  him) 
the  remains  (of  food)  or  (of)  butter  that  has  been 


ABOUT  CASTE  241 

offered.  And  one  may  not  teach  him  the  law  nor 
enjoin  upon  him  religious  observances. 
81.  For  he  who  tells  him  the  law  and  he  who  enjoins 
upon  him  (religious)  observances,  he  indeed,  to- 
gether with  that  Sudra,  sinks  into  the  darkness  of 
that  hell  Asamvratta  (unbounded).     (Book  IV.) 

These  are  the  laws  approved  by  the  Hindu  religion 
in  the  wonderful  land  of  the  Mahatmas  and  holy  men 
(  ?)  of  which  Theosophists  boast.  Should  all  Christian 
rule  vanish  from  the  land  of  India  the  penalties  of  the 
laws  regarding  Sudras  would  all  be  visited  upon  The- 
osophists themselves,  who  can  never  by  profession  or 
practice  become  anything  but  filthy  Mlechhas,  fit  only 
to  be  spat  upon  by  the  lordly  Brahmins  they  profess 
to  imitate. 

I  knew  an  old  lady  in  Poona  who  distinctly  remem- 
bers the  time  when  a  low-caste  was  not  allowed  inside 
that  intolerant  and  bigoted  city  before  the  hour  of  nine 
in  the  morning  and  after  four  in  the  evening.  During 
these  hours  the  shadows  are  long,  and  it  would  be 
difficult  to  prevent  the  unclean  shadow  of  a  Sudra 
from  falling  upon  a  holy  twice-born.  I  have  myself 
repeatedly  been  passed  by  Brahmins  in  Poona  early 
in  the  morning,  when  they  would  fairly  hug  the  wall 
toward  the  east  to  avoid  my  shadow  falling  upon 
them. 

How  strangely  a  certain  passage  from  the  "Mahab- 
arata"  sounds  after  all  this : 

Small  souls  inquire,  "Belongs  this  man" 
To  our  own  race,  or  class,  or  clan  ? 
But  larger  hearted  men  embrace 
As  brothers  all  the  human  race. 


242  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Then,  indeed,  must  India  be  populated  with  only 
"small  souls,"  for  any  recognition  of  men  as  brothers 
outside  the  class  or  clan  is  a  foreign  doctrine. 

At  a  large  meeting  in  Calcutta  fifty  years  ago  the 
same  sentiment  by  Burns  was  hailed  with  enthusiasm : 

For  a'  that  and  a'  that 
It's  comin'  yet  for  a'  that 
That  man  to  man  the  world  o'er, 
Shall  brothers  be  for  a'  that. 

And  yet  in  fifty  years  what  has  been  done  inside 
of  Hinduism  to  cure  this  evil?  It  will  require  some- 
thing mightier  than  social  reforms,  mightier  than  hu- 
man agency,  to  overcome  and  cast  down  this  awful 
power  of  caste.  Dr.  Duff's  words,  quoted  in  Mur- 
dock's  pamphlet,  contain  the  key  to  the  only  solution  : 

What,  then,  can  exorcise  this  demon-spirit  of  caste  ? 
Nothing !  Nothing  but  the  mighty  power  of  the  Spirit 
of  God,  quickening,  renewing  and  sanctifying  the 
whole  Hindu  world !  It  is  grace,  not  argument ;  re- 
generation of  nature,  not  any  improved  policy  of  gov- 
ernment —  in  a  word,  the  Gospel,  the  everlasting 
Gospel,  and  that  alone,  savingly  brought  home  by  the 
energy  of  Jehovah's  Spirit,  that  can  effectually  root 
out  and  destroy  the  gigantic  evil!  And  it  is  the  same 
energy,  inworking  through  the  same  Gospel  of  grace 
and  salvation,  that  can  and  will  root  out  and  destroy 
the  other  monster-evil  under  which  India  still  groans 
— Idolatry  and  its  grim  satellite,  superstition ! 

As  caste  and  idolatry  sprang  up  together  from  the 
same  rank  soil  of  old  nature,  both  are  destined  to  fall 
together.  Then  will  the  stupendous  fabric  of  caste 
and  idolatry  be  seen  falling  down  like  Dagou  before 
the  ark  of  the  living  God ! 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

PECULIARITIES  AND  INCONSISTENCIES  OF 

CASTE. 

When  we  speak  of  the  "system"  of  caste  a  West- 
ern man  conceives  the  idea  of  regular  rules,  divisions 
and  customs.  Upon  the  contrary,  while  its  reign  is  an 
iron  reign  and  millions  bow  to  its  tyranny,  yet  in  itself 
it  is  one  of  the  most  contradictory  and  inconsistent 
systems  imaginable.  A  missionary  once  told  us  that 
he  wrote,  while  in  college,  an  essay  on  "Caste  in 
India,"  which  was  considered  by  all,  himself  included, 
as  a  very  fair  and  comprehensive  treatment  of  the  sub- 
ject. Now,  after  ten  years'  residence  in  India,  work- 
ing among  all  classes  of  people  and  hearing  constantly 
of  the  bewildering  rules  and  requirements  of  caste, 
he  feels  incompetent  to  give  a  settled  opinion  on  this 
question,  involving  the  accumulated  ideas  of  centuries. 

I  have  heard  Brahmins  flatly  deny  as  their  customs 
things  which  I  have  myself  seen  other  Brahmins  do, 
and  we  find  in  various  parts  of  India  similarly  con- 
flicting conditions  and  demands.  Many  of  these  dif- 
ferences come  from  the  fact  that  not  a  few  high  castes 
here  and  there  in  India  are  manufactured  ones — as, 
for  instance,  Rajputs,  through  prowess  at  arms,  or 
through  wealth,  support  their  claim  to  be  Brahmins. 
In  South  India  many  grand  Telugu  and  Tamil  families 
succeed  in  being  classed  and  recognized  as  Brahmins, 
though  not  even  belonging  to  the  Aryan  race,  being 


244  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Dravidians  of  entirely  different  stock.  Some  scholars 
even  claim,  as  does  the  German  writer  Peschel,  that 
they  are  not  even  the  Dravidians  from  which  Adam 
sprung.  In  the  Central  Provinces  the  Raj  Gonds  are 
now  recognized  in  government  census  returns  as  be- 
longing to  the  Kshatris,  or  second  grand  division, 
though  they  are  really  of  the  aboriginal  hill  tribes. 
All  these  people,  while  classed  as  Brahmins  or  Ksha- 
tris, will  naturally  keep  to  most  of  their  original  cus- 
toms, so  that  what  a  Brahmin  will  allow  or  prohibit 
in  one  part  of  the  country  is  no  sure  index  of  what 
will  be  permitted  or  denied  to  a  man  of  the  same  grade 
in  another.  Other  conditions,  such  as  isolation,  etc., 
tend  to  foster  differences.  If  Mr.  Sherring's  estimate 
is  correct  that  there  are  two  thousand  subdivisions  of 
Brahmins,  then  there  must  perforce  be  two  thousand 
points  of  difference  at  least,  with  possibly  several 
thousand  more. 

In  the  Berars  we  were  asked  by  a  gentleman  why 
it  was  that  while  Ahirs,  Kurmis  or  Kumbis  and  Kum- 
hars  (all  belonging  to  the  Sudras)  abhor  the  flesh  of 
swine  and  will  not  even  touch  it,  yet  some  Rajputs,  be- 
longing to  the  second  grand  division,  will  eat  it.  This 
question  horrified  us,  and  we  thought  the  statement 
must  be  entirely  incorrect.  However,  on  inquiring,  we 
find  it  is  true  of  some  Rajputs ;  not  only  some  of  them, 
but  also  of  some  subcastes  of  Brahmins,  who  limit 
themselves  to  the  wild  hog.  From  a  story  to  be  told 
later  we  can  believe  this  evil  without  the  word  of  a 
North  India  Brahmin,  who  informed  me  that  this  cus- 
tom of  swine-eating  obtains  among  some  subdivisions. 


PECULIARITIES  OF  CASTE  245 

There  are  new  and  curious  things  all  about  us,  and 
because  we  often  are  not  acquainted  with  them  we  may 
contradict  those  who  discover  more  concerning  them. 
Most  people,  after  living  in  India  for  years,  would 
deny  the  statement  that  Mohammedans  do  scavenger 
work.  Yet  among  the  seven  subdivisions  of  Bhangis, 
or  sweepers,  we  find  that  two — the  Shaik  Mehtars  and 
the  Rawats — are  Mohammedans.  In  Khandwa,  at  a 
conference  several  years  ago,  I  saw  a  Mohammedan 
woman,  as  I  judged  by  her  dress  and  appearance,  doing 
sweeper's  work.  On  inquiring  the  missionary  told  me 
that  was  a  common  sight  in  that  part  of  the  country. 
In  Lucknow  there  are  five  hundred  Mohammedan 
sweepers. 

When  we  speak  of  the  hapless  lot  of  the  low-caste 
and  the  out-caste  in  India,  how  they  are  oppressed 
and  trampled  upon  by  the  higher  classes,  and  all  the 
sad  conditions  of  their  lot,  would  it  not  seem  incred- 
ible to  Western  ears  if  we  should  continue  our  remarks 
by  saying  that  the  poor  woman  sweeping  about  the 
house  and  carrying  away  offal  would  yet  refuse  an 
invitation  to  sit  down  at  your  table  and  eat  a  com- 
fortable meal  on  the  ground  that  her  caste  forbade  it? 
Now  confuse  your  listener  still  more  by  saying  that 
she  could  with  impunity  carry  away  scraps  left  on 
the  plates  and  gnaw  bones  already  picked,  and  to  his 
mind  you  will  have  reached  the  climax  of  absurdity ! 

And  then  the  strange  ideas  prevailing  in  England 
and  America  in  regard  to  cleanliness  in  India!  Many 
missionaries  and  travelers  confirm  these  mistaken  no- 


246  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

tions  by  speaking  of  the  scrupulously  clean  zenanas. 
The  bare  interiors  impress  many  people  with  the  idea 
of  cleanliness,  but  a  closer  inspection  generally  discov- 
ers the  sanitary  condition  to  be  frightful.     In  most 
families  the  children  are  not  even  taught  the  habits 
considered  essential   in   animal  pets   in    our    homes. 
There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  and  in  some  few 
houses  real  cleanliness  obtains  and  not  merely  cere- 
monial  purity.      But  the    prevalence  of  plague,   the 
drastic  cleansing  measures  adopted  by  government,  the 
epidemics  of  typhoid,  smallpox  and  other  infectious 
diseases  are  sufficient  testimony  to  the  unclean  con- 
ditions of  streets,  houses,  wells  and  rivers.    Just  watch 
the  bathers  in  a  small  river  or  tank,  from  which  each 
one  emerges  purified  (?),  and  you  will  be  convinced. 
The  whole  body  is  being  cleansed,  coughings,  spittings 
are  going  on — but  I  refrain — while  the  man  three  feet 
below  is  taking  a  morning  drink  of  running,  therefore 
pure  (  !),  water!    To  hear  of  a  man  undergoing  puri- 
fication sounds  clean,  as  does  purifying   (?)  a  well. 
But  when  we  learn  that  the  latter  is  plastered  with 
cow  manure  to  cleanse  it,  we  gasp ;  and  when  we  find 
the  purification  of  the  man  consists  in  swallowing  a 
pill  composed  of  three  products  of  the  cow — milk,  but- 
ter and  the  excretions — we  feel  that  we  cannot  solve 
the  question  of  Hindu  purity.    A  high-caste  man,  roll- 
ing out  his  chapatties  (bread  cakes)  will  stop  to  blow 
his  nose ;  having  no  handkerchief,  he  rubs  his  hand  on 
his  loin-cloth  and  proceeds  with  the  rolling.    The  dex- 
terous fingers   in  the  zenana,   making  the  delectable 
pan,  will  pause  to  pick  something  from  the  toes  and 


PECULIARITIES  OF  CASTE  247 

proceed  with  the  pan  without  even  a  ceremonial  wash- 
ing. The  sweetmeat  man,  in  weighing  out  his  goods, 
will  spill  them  all  over  his  bare  feet  and  gather  them 
up  and  add  them  to  those  on  the  scales  without  even 
an  apology.  As  for  the  cloth  covering  the  sweeties, 
it  represents  considerable  wealth  of  butter  and  sugar 
accumulations.  As  to  the  habits  of  servants,  every 
missionary  can  tell  his  tale  of  woe.  Some  of  our 
friends  at  home  would  starve,  I  fear,  if  they  tried  to 
hold  on  to  the  ideas  of  cleanliness  they  have  always 
cherished,  or  else  do  no  mission  work  in  order  to  look 
after  their  own  health.  This  is  one  of  the  minor 
crosses  in  this  land,  though  at  times  comedy  leaves  the 
stage  and  tragedy  takes  its  place. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Kullman,  no  doubt,  lost  their  lives 
the  same  day  because  of  the  unclean  condition  of  a 
cooking  vessel,  while  two  other  missionaries  near 
Madras  died  from  a  similar  cause.  There  are  no  doubt 
many  such  cases  near  us.  Here  in  the  Central  Prov- 
inces three  English  officials  died  before  morning  after 
a  dinner.  The  dishwater  in  which  the  plates  were 
washed  after  each  course  was  found  to  be  deadly  poi- 
son by  reason  of  germs. 

In  the  land  where  some  castes  are  enjoined  to  bathe 
five,  six  and  even  thirty  times  a  day  we  are  in  con- 
stant peril  of  losing  our  lives  through  uncleanliness. 
How  many  of  us  have  sighed  for  a  drink  of  clean 
water,  not  boiled,  from  a  clean  well,  removed  from 
drains,  from  a  clean  bucket  in  which  hands  have  not 
been  washed  surreptitiously,  from  a  clean  cup  which 
has  been  already  wiped  on  a  clean  towel   (not  pre- 


248  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

viously  used  for  toilet  purposes),  and  cleansed  pre- 
viously in  clean  water,  in  which  lurk  no  germs  of  dis- 
ease !  Alas !  for  bathings  oft  and  the  purifications  and 
ceremonies  of  caste !  As  the  baseless  fabric  of  a  vision 
they  fly  away. 

Kindness  to  animals !  Perhaps  in  no  one  thing  is 
the  utter  contradiction  of  precept  and  practice  more 
apparent  than  in  the  reverence  given  to  animals  and 
the  treatment  they  receive.  Because  the  cow,  the  sa- 
cred bull,  the  peafowl,  elephant,  monkey  and  snake  are 
worshiped  in  India,  therefore  it  is  concluded  that  here 
is  the  animals'  paradise,  and  the  poor  dumb  creatures 
of  Western  lands  are  commiserated  on  their  hapless 
lot. 

Jains  are  often  seen  going  about  the  country  wear- 
ing a  thin  cloth  tied  over  nose  and  mouth  so  that  they 
may  not  destroy  animal  life.  These  men  will  not  wade 
a  river  for  fear  of  crushing  small  creatures  beneath 
their  feet.  Poor  people,  unable  to  feed  Brahmins  or 
beggars  (I  was  going  to  say  other  beggars,  for  so 
many  Brahmins  fatten  on  free  gifts  from  the  poor), 
will  go  along  the  road  with  handfuls  of  crumbs  feed- 
ing the  ants  under  the  trees  or  throwing  the  crumbs 
to  the  birds.  This  all  sounds  very  pitiful  and  kind, 
yet  in  no  other  country  is  the  lot  of  the  brute  crea- 
tion such  a  hard  one.  Readers  of  English  and  Ameri- 
can journals  are  often  admonished  of  their  duty  to 
the  dumb  creatures  about  them  because  even  heathen 
people  are  merciful  to  their  animals.  We  are  told 
again  and  again  of  that  wonderful  hospital  for  animals 
in  Bombay.    The  only  really  pleasant  thing  about  it, 


PECULIARITIES  OF  CASTE  249 

the  gateway,  is  photographed  and  reproduced  in  pa- 
pers and  magazines,  until  we  fairly  long  to  escort  some 
of  these  enthusiastic  Hinduites  into  the  interior. 
Could  they  pay  but  one  visit  there  we  should  never  see 
its  gateway  portrayed  in  the  magazines  again.  The 
maimed  and  miserable  creatures  within,  without  medi- 
cine or  treatment,  and,  for  the  most  part,  underfed, 
make  one's  heart  ache  for  pity.  The  cage  of  yelping, 
thin,  mangy  bazaar  dogs,  whose  speedy  death  would 
be  a  mercy  to  themselves  and  a  benefit  to  human  beings 
who  may  be  endangered  if  they  escape,  the  wretched 
arrangements  and  revolting  sights,  are  sufficient  to 
convince  anyone  that  only  mawkish  sentiment  prompts 
the  building  and  maintaining  of  such  a  hospital.  At 
one  time  a  roomful  of  bedbugs  were  cared  for,  poor 
men  being  hired  by  the  night  for  eight  cents  to  sleep 
there  in  order  that  the  creatures  might  feast  upon  the 
miserable  humanity.  Outside  the  hospital  are  crowds 
of  uncared  for  beggars,  while  within  is  this  mockery 
of  care  for  animals.  The  worship  of  the  cow  and 
sacred  bull,  though  it  may  allow  certain  sleek  animals, 
which  have  been  blessed  by  the  priests,  to  roam  the 
grain  bazaars  and  eat  their  fill  from  the  stores  of  the 
poor  grain-sellers,  does  not  by  any  means  insure  good 
treatment  to  animals  even  of  the  bovine  character. 
Such  emaciated,  scarred,  ill-fed,  ill-treated  cattle  you 
will  never  see  anywhere  else.  As  for  hobbled  horses, 
ponies  and  cows,  space  forbids  the  story.  The  little 
donkeys  are  nearly  all  lame  from  excessive  burdens 
and  scant  food,  while  hundreds  are  beaten  constantly 
on  already  sore  and  bleeding  backs.    The  bazaars  are 


250  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

full  of  starving  cats,  dogs  and  goats,  and  many  cruel 
things  are  done  for  gain  or  out  of  laziness  which  I 
think  are  unknown  in  Western  lands.  Once,  when 
going  up  the  ghat  road  to  a  hill  station,  we  were  un- 
wise enough  to  take  a  cheap  pony-carriage.  The  po- 
nies nearly  succumbed.  Beatings  were  of  no  avail. 
We  were  growing  weary  of  the  brutality  of  the  driver 
and  also  very  anxious  to  get  on,  as  we  had  no  wish 
to  spend  the  night  on  the  road,  for  tigers  were  not 
entire  strangers  there.  "Oh,  we'll  soon  make  them 
go,"  the  driver  said,  as  we  neared  some  huts.  One 
of  the  men  ran  into  one  of  these  huts  and  returned 
with  something  in  his  hand.  We  supposed  that  he  had 
a  little  grain  for  the  poor,  jaded  beasts.  When  he 
went  to  the  ponies'  heads  something  aroused  our  sus- 
picions, and  my  husband  jumped  out  in  time  to  see 
the  man  trying  to  rub  red  pepper  into  the  eyes  of  the 
exhausted  creatures.  Our  merciful  intervention  was 
the  cause  of  our  camping  under  a  tree  in  the  rain  for 
a  couple  of  hours  until  more  ponies  could  be  secured. 
The  absurdity  of  worshiping  the  sacred  bull  and  its 
small  indication  of  gentleness  to  animals,  even  of  the 
same  kind,  may  be  illustrated  by  a  little  scene  I  wit- 
nessed at  a  Hindu  festival.  A  beautiful,  sleek,  well- 
fed  young  bullock  was  mounted  on  a  cart  and  being 
drawn  around  the  fair  to  receive  the  salutations  of  the 
people  and  their  offerings  of  grain,  grass,  sugar  and 
salt.  The  handsome  young  animal  looked  happy  and 
well  cared  for.  But  what  of  the  poor  bullock  draw- 
ing the  cart?  Thin,  hungry,  goaded  on  by  sticks  in 
which  nails  were  fastened,  causing  its  poor  sides  to 


PECULIARITIES  OF  CASTE  251 

bleed  afresh  with  each  thrust!  And  this  in  a  land 
where  animals  are  worshiped ! 

A  lady  in  an  American  paper  suggested  that,  as 
the  Hindus  loved  animals  so  much  and  held  their  life 
so  sacred,  it  would  be  easy  to  organize  bands  of  mercy 
and  help  among  them.  Mercy  and  help — ah!  How 
both  are  needed  in  a  land  where  children  are  purposely 
crippled  in  order  to  beg  more  successfully  for  lazy 
parents  and  guardians!  In  South  India  even  such  a 
horrible  practice  is  known  as  fastening  beetles  on 
children's  eyes  to  eat  them  out.  Can  there  be  mercy 
and  help  among  high  castes  where  baby-widows  are 
treated  worse  than  criminals  would  deserve?  But  at 
any  rate,  some  will  say,  the  taking  of  life  is  avoided. 
What  life?  Caste  forbids  the  killing  of  a  cow  or  a 
chicken ;  therefore  an  only  son  in  a  Brahmin  family  is 
left  to  die  sooner  than  give  him  the  beef  or  chicken 
broth  which  the  doctor,  himself  a  Hindu,  said  would 
in  all  probability  save  his  life.  At  the  same  time  this 
family's  caste  does  not  forbid  the  eating  of  fish.  Save 
the  life  of  a  broken-legged  horse,  but  ride  another 
with  bleeding  back  an  unmerciful  distance!  There  is 
no  soundness  in  the  Hindu  creed  of  the  sacredness  of 
life.  It  is  an  illogical,  blind  following  of  caste  rules 
which  ameliorates  the  condition  of  neither  animal  nor 
man. 

Among  the  people  who  observe  the  purdah  or 
gosha  system  we  find,  amid  all  its  hardships  and  pri- 
vations, many  seeming  and  real  breaches  of  its  letter 
and  spirit.  In  many  very  high  families  the  old  mother 
or  grandmother  will  sometimes  appear  and  talk  before 


252  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

men,  but  the  younger  women  are  supposed  never  to 
be  seen  by  other  than  relatives.  What  was  our  sur- 
prise, then,  while  calling  upon  a  family  of  rank,  to 
have  a  young  and  beautifully  adorned  bride  brought 
in  and  shown  to  my  husband !  And  that,  too,  in  pres- 
ence of  her  own  husband  and  another  male  relative! 

In  many  houses  where  we  teach,  should  the  hus- 
band appear,  the  wife  will  fly  from  our  presence,  leav- 
ing us  to  face  him  alone,  thus  demonstrating  her  own 
superiority  over  the  foreign  ladies.  Even  the  oil-man 
or  water-carrier  must  give  notice  of  his  approach,  so 
that  the  women  may  hide  behind  pillars  or  doors.  Yet 
in  these  same  families,  if  a  man  comes  on  business,  one 
of  the  women  will  often  talk  to  him  from  behind  a 
door  or  pillar,  and  in  a  lull  of  the  conversation,  pre- 
tending to  think  he  is  gone,  she  will  look  out,  showing 
her  face  entirely ;  then,  with  a  little  scream,  disappear 
again.  From  a  young  European  woman  who  has 
worked  for  years  in  the  zenanas  I  learn  that  much  flir- 
tation and  even  real  sin  is  possible  behind  the  purdah. 
There  is,  after  all,  only  one  effectual  purdah,  and  it  is 
the  gospel  one :    "Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart." 

There  are  some  strange  practices  connected  with 
the  naming  of  children.  We  all  know  how  the  Brah- 
mins despise  the  Bhangis,  or  Mehtars,  and  to  tell  one 
of  them  that  he  acts  like  a  Mehtar  is  the  grossest  in- 
sult. Yet  these  proud  people  will  give  these  very 
names  to  their  children  in  the  hope  that  the  children 
may  thus  be  rendered  displeasing  to  the  gods,  and 
that,  in  consequence,  the  gods  will  not  desire  to  take 
them.    Similar  to  this  is  the  Western  superstition,  that 


PECULIARITIES  OF  CASTE  253 

if  you  love  your  child  too  much  God  will  take  it  from 
you.  In  a  Brahmin  family  which  I  know  five  children 
died  in  succession,  each  soon  after  its  birth.  When  a 
sixth  came,  and  that  a  fine-looking  boy,  they  quickly 
gave  it  the  name  Bhangi  (pronounced  Bungi).  After 
two  years  more  a  little  girl  was  born,  and  they  called 
her  Mehtrani.  Both  names  mean  scavenger.  As 
these  two  children  lived,  it  would  be  difficult  to  dis- 
lodge the  superstition  which  has  fastened  such  oppo- 
brious  epithets  on  their  children.  Another  family  who 
would  dislike  very  much  to  be  considered  Christians, 
nevertheless  named  a  child,  born  during  the  famine, 
when  the  family  were  receiving  help  from  the  mission, 
Isa  Charan — "At  the  feet  of  Jesus." 

Some  of  the  most  inconsistent  features  of  caste  re- 
late to  food.  In  certain  Banyia  castes  a  man  may  not 
eat  food  prepared  in  any  home  but  his  own,  or  by  any- 
one outside  his  own  family,  with  one  notable  exception. 
He  may  eat  it,  prepared  away  from  home  and  by  others 
than  relatives,  provided  it  is  prepared  in  ghee.  Now, 
the  reason  for  this  is  that,  as  feasts  in  connection  with 
marriages  are  necessary  parts  of  the  ceremonies,  and 
as  those  attending  the  weddings  must  be  able  to  eat 
there,  the  enactment  that  food  prepared  with  ghee 
may  be  eaten  away  from  home  assures  the  expensive- 
ness  of  the  food. 

These  same  Banyias  may  not  sell  honey  or  bees- 
wax, as  they  are  products  manipulated  by  the  mouth 
of  the  bee.  Other  less  particular  castes  may  sell  these 
contaminated  articles.  You  may  cause  great  loss  to 
a  sweetmeat  seller  by  touching  the  sweets  on  his  plate 


254  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

or  tray,  as  you  thereby  spoil  the  whole  stock.  We  did 
this  once,  and,  after  tasting,  decided  not  to  buy,  as  the 
wares  were  not  fresh.  "Give  it  to  your  dog,  then.  I 
cannot  sell  it.  You  have  touched  it,"  the  man  said. 
Yet  these  men  make  some  of  their  finest  goods  with 
sugar  which  they  know  has  been  clarified  with  bone- 
dust,  while  another  large  part  is  made  from  gurh,  or 
unrefined  cane-sugar,  which  one  would  think  would  be 
sufficient  to  condemn  it  for  high-castes.  This  gurh 
is  prepared  by  many  castes,  principally  by  Kachi, 
Kurmi  and  Laria  Chumar  castes,  which  are  all  com- 
posed of  Sudras.  In  no  other  particular  can  they 
come  near  the  lofty  Brahmin,  who  would  throw  away 
any  food  that  a  Sudra  had  touched. 

Now  for  a  few  hog  stories,  which  show,  perhaps, 
the  ridiculous  side  of  caste  rules  and  exceptions  more 
vividly  than  anything  else.  A  hunter  brought  to  the 
bungalow  five  beautiful  little  white  pigs.  I  was  tempted 
to  buy  them,  being  tired  of  goat  meat,  when  the  serv- 
ants prepared  to  flee  the  compound  in  a  body — high, 
low,  Hindu  and  Mohammedan,  from  the  cook  to  the 
water-carrier.  I  did  not  buy  them;  yet  these  same 
servants  will  cook  English  salt  pork,  sausages,  etc., 
and  carry  it  in  parcels  from  the  railway  station, 
knowing  exactly  what  they  are  doing.  An  amusing 
thing  occurred  in  South  India  in  a  mission-compound. 
A  wild-looking  hog  rushed  on  the  premises  from  the 
direction  of  the  jungle.  The  servants  declared  it  to  be 
a  wild  hog,  and  the  missionary  shot  it.  Two  Brahmins 
heard  of  the  shooting  and  came  in  haste  to  get  some 
bristles  to  wear  as  charms.    They  tied  some  around 


PECULIARITIES  OF  CASTE  255 

their  necks,  feeling  well  secured  thereby  against  evil 
spirits.  Alas!  for  their  joy!  The  next  day  it  was 
proved  beyond  question  that  the  hog  was  a  domestic 
animal  owned  by  a  Basor.  It  was  being  driven  with 
others,  and  breaking  away  fled  to  the  jungle.  Marks 
on  the  animal  identified  it  and  confusion  reigned.  The 
two  Brahmins  were  distracted  over  their  errors.  The 
Panchaiyat  held  its  session  on  the  spot,  only  far  enough 
away  to  escape  defilement,  and  the  two  unfortunate 
men  were  sentenced  to  give  an  expensive  khana  to 
their  caste  people  on  penalty  of  being  excluded  from 
caste  if  they  refused. 

Here  is  a  still  more  astonishing  story:  On  the 
sacred  Narbudda  River,  at  a  place  called  Burman,  you 
may  see  lordly  Brahmins  crawling  prostrate  under  a 
stone  image  of  a  hog.  If  you  are  good,  yet  stout,  the 
hog  will  raise  itself  to  let  you  through ;  but  if  you  are 
thin  and  bad,  he  will  squeeze  you  down  until  you  will 
be  glad  to  draw  back. 

In  the  Vedas  the  Viraha,  or  boar-incarnation,  is 
fully  described.  The  story,  by  the  way,  is  the  Hindu 
version  of  the  deluge ;  from  whence  derived,  who  can 
tell  ?  A  demon  cast  the  earth  into  the  sea  and  destroyed 
its  population.  Vishnu  assumed  the  form  of  a  huge 
boar,  and  with  his  powerful  tusks  raised  the  earth 
from  the  waters.  This  incarnation  is  usually  spoken 
of  as  the  Barha  incarnation. 

Just  at  the  close  of  the  Dawali,  this  year,  a  huge 
bazaar  was  held  in  front  of  the  house  of  a  man,  Bhika 
by  name.  He  was  born  a  Basor,  but  became  a  sweeper 
by  marriage  and  occupation.  This  man  hires  musicians 


256  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

to  attract  the  crowds  and  the  market-people  bring 
their  goods  there  to  sell.  At  this  time  he  has  a  great 
sacrifice  also.  A  booth  is  erected  near  his  house,  and 
in  it  an  image  of  mud  is  made.  This  is  called  a  murlee, 
and  a  mock  marriage  is  often  celebrated  between  this 
image  and  men  attending  the  fair.  At  night  a  great 
sacrifice  is  made.  A  hog  is  slaughtered  and  offered  to 
the  idol.  I  could  not  find  out  the  meaning  of  all 
this  ceremony,  even  from  the  people  themselves.  They 
know  very  little  of  the  inner  meaning  of  such  rites, 
and  what  they  do  know  they  hesitate  to  tell  us.  But 
what  I  wish  to  emphasize  is  the  fact  that  in  the  even- 
ing all  classes,  from  Brahmins  down,  come  into  this 
low  quarter  of  the  town,  in  front  of  a  sweeper's 
house,  and  worship  before  an  image  which  he  has 
paid  for  and  set  up.  All  classes  of  Brahmins  come, 
not  only  the  Chattisgarhi  Brahmins,  as  a  Christian 
claiming  descent  from  Brahmins  suggested,  but  North 
India  Brahmins  and  proud  Marathas,  even  to  a  first- 
class  magistrate.    • 

How  unfounded  seems  the  hatred  to  beef  and  beef- 
eaters, as  the  Hindus  call  Europeans,  when  in  their 
own  books  (the  Vishnu  Puranas)  Monier  Williams 
finds  the  fact  stated  that  meat-eating  was  once  univer- 
sal in  India,  and  the  cow  was  sacrificed  at  certain 
festivals,  when  the  aroma  of  the  beef  was  considered  as 
an  excellent  aliment  for  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  Manu 
also,  the  great  law-giver,  sanctions  the  eating  of  all 
animal  food,  only  stipulating  that  portions  be  offered 
to  the  gods  and  to  spirits  of  ancestors.  How  absurd 
seems  a  sentence  passed  on  a  king  of  Travancore,  who 


PECULIARITIES  OF  CASTE  257 

was  troubled  on  account  of  the  lives  he  had  destroyed 
in  battle,  that  these  sins  would  all  be  forgiven  him 
if  he  should  pass  through  the  body  of  a  cow !  Fully 
as  absurd  was  the  manner  in  which  he  fulfilled  the 
condition.  A  huge  golden  cow  was  made,  and,  after 
lying  in  its  interior  for  three  days,  the  king  crawled 
forth  absolved. 

During  famine  times  caste-rules  undergo  great 
strains.  Some  Panchaiyats  passed  special  dispensa- 
tions allowing  caste  people  to  eat  at  government  poor- 
houses  without  losing  caste,  and  many  other  subter- 
fuges were  resorted  to.  In  most  cases  the  people 
were  true  to  caste  and  many  doubtless  died  sooner 
than  break  its  regulations. 

In  Gadawara,  a  few  years  ago,  a  man  lost  his 
wife  and  child  in  a  burning  house  because  he  was 
not  near  enough  to  give  them  permission  to  leave  it. 
They  resisted  all  efforts  made  to  remove  them  until' 
it  was  too  late.  From  a  foolish  notion  of  reverencing 
the  master  of  the  house  they  doubly  bereaved  him. 
Time  fails  to  recount  many  other  peculiar  and  contra- 
dictory things  pertaining  to  caste — such  as  the  work- 
men on  the  Darjeeling  railway  receiving  caste  sanction 
for  meat-eating  while  on  that  difficult  work.  The 
strangest  feature  of  it  all  is  that  the  people  them- 
selves seem  utterly  blind  to  these  absurdities.  They 
bow  unquestioningly  to  the  dictates  of  this  system  and 
never  inquire:  Is  it  right?  Is  it  consistent?  or,  Is  it 
true  ?  They  simply  bow.  Well  may  we  say,  with  Eras- 
mus, of  it  and  them,  "So  hard  pressed  are  they  by  the 


258  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

heavy  yoke  of  man  that  they  cannot  take  upon  them 
the  easy  yoke  of  Christ." 

But  its  sway  shall  not  be  forever.  Here  and  there 
souls  are  awakening  to  a  sense  of  caste-bondage  and; 
realizing  that  "life  is  more  than  meat,  and  the  body 
than  raiment,"  are  searching  for  the  true  rule  of  life 
which  teaches  that  "not  that  which  enters  into  a  man 
defileth  him,  but  that  which  proceedeth  from  the 
heart."  A  Hindu  reformer  cuttingly  says,  "Our  reli- 
gion seems  to  have  its  root  in  our  stomachs,"  but  by 
and  by  the  new  and  purer  doctrine  will  be  believed 
throughout  India,  and  instead  of  innumerable  phari- 
saic  injunctions  as  to  food,  cup  and  platter,  the  motto 
for  Hindustan,  as  for  the  world,  shall  be:  "Blessed 
are  the  pure  in  heart." 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
EDUCATION  IN  INDIA. 

Americans  usually  think  of  the  people  of  India  in 
a  bulk,  and  call  them  "natives,"  making  no  distinction 
among  them  as  to  education,  refinement  or  wealth. 
The  word  "native"  suggests  people  like  the  wild  tribes 
of  Africa;  hence  many,  through  ignorance,  put  the 
people  of  India  on  a  par  with  those  tribes.  Just  why 
a  man  of  India  should  be  called  a  "native"  rather  than 
that  a  man  born  in  Germany  or  France  should  be 
called  a  "native"  when  in  his  own  country,  may  not 
be  easy  of  explanation.  Think  of  the  shock  to  a  Lon- 
doner in  Regent  Park  if  he  were  referred  to  as  a 
native.     Some  one's  head  would  be  in  danger. 

An  Indian  lady  recently  perpetrated  a  good  joke. 
She  was  intelligent,  educated,  refined  and  quite  comely. 
She  was  lecturing  in  England  on  behalf  of  the  Anti- 
Opium  cause,  and  everywhere  heard  her  own  people 
spoken  of  as  "natives"  of  India.  An  English  lady 
said  to  her  one  day : 

"Why  do  you  return  to  India?  You  are  good- 
looking,  intelligent  and  attractive.  You  could  marry 
an  Englishman  and  live  here." 

"Oh,  I  wouldn't  like  to  marry  a  native"  was  her 
sarcastic  reply,  meaning  a  native  of  England,  of 
course. 

There  are  some  wild  people  in  India — a  few,  not 
259 


260  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

many.  They  keep  to  the  jungles  and  mountains  and 
live  on  fruits  and  game.  But  they  are  not  representa- 
tive of  the  people  in  general.  On  the  other  extreme 
there  are  Indian  gentlemen  who  are  members  of  the 
Viceroy's  council,  judges  in  the  High  Courts,  barris- 
ters, physicians,  college  professors,  editors  of  period- 
icals, bankers,  managers  of  large  industries,  besides 
the  long  list  of  men  employed  in  minor  government 
and  railway  offices.  These  also  represent  but  a  very 
small  percentage  of  the  people.  Between  these  and 
the  jungle  tribes  are  the  masses  of  the  people — trades- 
men, shopkeepers,  farmers,  laborers,  teachers  and  the 
like.  The  educated  ones  indicate  what  the  Hindu 
mind  is  capable  of,  but  the  masses  are  yet  very  igno- 
rant. 

The  census  of  1891  shows  that  out  of  every  thou- 
sand males  one  hundred  and  nine  could  read  and  write, 
and  of  one  thousand  females  only  six  could  read  and 
write ;  or  about  1 1  per  cent  of  the  males  and  six-tenths 
of  one  per  cent  of  the  females  were  literate.  This 
shows  a  wide  field  for  improvement  along  educational 
lines. 

The  thought  of  general  education  for  India  is  of 
very  recent  date.  Before  the  British  gained  control 
there  were  a  few  schools  among  the  Mohammedans 
and  a  few  among  the  Hindus.  These  were  for  the 
most  part  engaged  in  teaching  religion.  The  Hindus 
did  not  believe  in  general  education.  Learning  was 
limited  to  the  Brahmin  caste.  Warriors,  tradesmen, 
farmers  and  laborers  were  not  permitted  to  learn  to 
read  and  write.    It  was  thought  that  the  sacred  books 


EDUCATION   IN   INDIA  261 

were  too  sacred  to  place  before  them.  The  Brahmin, 
having  a  monopoly  of  learning  and  having  no  rival  to 
spur  him  on,  was  content  with  but  little,  progress. 
He  spent  the  most  of  his  time  in  idle  dreaming.  His 
religion  was  the  result  of  his  dreams.  His  science, 
what  little  he  had,  was  the  product  of  his  imagina- 
tion, based  on  no  empirical  knowledge  of  nature  itself. 
He  did  not  study  phenomena  to  find  out  the  "how" 
and  the  "why"  of  things.  That  was  too  much  like 
drudgery  and  unsuited  to  his  tastes.  But,  instead,  he 
sought  his  gods — gods  of  his  own  making — and  en- 
deavored to  obtain  from  them  revelations  that  would 
explain  the  universe.  He  mistook  his  imaginings  for 
revelations  and  the  results  are  vagaries  that  we  find 
in  the  Puranas,  and  that  used  to  be  called  science,  but 
now  are  laughed  at  by  the  Brahmin  himself.  That 
the  earth  is  flat,  bounded  by  seven  circular  seas  of 
milk,  whey,  butter,  water,  etc. ;  that  it  rests  on  the 
badcs  of  four  elephants,  which  stand  on  a  turtle,  that 
in  turn  rests  upon  a  snake,  is  not  science,  but  a  dys- 
peptic dream  that  will  not  bear  the  morning  light. 

About  a  century  ago  there  began  to  be  some  talk 
among  the  English  officials  on  the  practicability  of 
educating  a  certain  number  of  Brahmin  youths  for 
the  subordinate  positions  in  the  government  service. 
Several  meetings  were  held  and  a  great  deal  of  dis- 
cussion, pro  and  con,  took  place.  Warren  Hastings 
was  a  warm  advocate  of  the  project.  Some  opposed, 
fearing  to  take  the  "native"  into  government  offices. 
Others  thought  him  incapable  of  such  service.  But 
various  schools  were  attempted,  with  varying  degrees 
of  success. 


262  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

About  that  time  William  Carey,  a  Baptist  mis- 
sionary, appeared  on  the  scene.  To  him  more  than 
to  any  other  man  is  due  the  credit  of  founding  educa- 
tion in  India.  Before  his  time  some  Lutheran  mis- 
sionaries had  done  something  in  the  way  of  reducing 
a  few  vernaculars  to  writing  and  establishing  schools. 
But  Carey  mastered  the  Sanscrit  and  a  few  of  the  ver- 
naculars. His  great  thought  was  to  get  a  literature. 
He  established  a  printing-press,  cast  his  own  type  in 
the  vernaculars  and  began  printing  the  Bible  in  the 
language  of  the  common  people.  Marshman  and  Ward 
joined  with  Carey.  After  some  years  they  had  printed 
the  Bible  in  twenty-six  languages  of  India.  Along 
with  the  Bible  they  printed  school  text-books,  that 
the  people  might  learn  to  read.  Soon  schools  were 
established,  especially  by  various  missions,  as  these 
text-books  made  schools  possible. 

The  introduction  of  these  text-books  into  the  ver- 
naculars was  the  real  beginning  of  general  education 
in  India.  In  the  beginning  there  was  great  opposition 
to  promiscuous  education.  The  Brahmins  foresaw 
their  loss  of  prestige  if  the  common  people  had  access 
to  books,  and  they  strenuously  opposed  this  innova- 
tion. Even  within  the  past  twenty  years,  when  an 
Indian  gentleman  translated  the  Rig  Veda  into  Ben- 
gali, there  was  great  commotion  among  the  Brah- 
mins on  account  of  the  degradation  of  the  sacred  book 
by  putting  it  into  the  hands  of  the  common  people. 

The  people  of  India  are  very  conservative  and  rev- 
erence ancient  customs.  They  are  slow  to  take  hold 
of  anything  new.  They  say,  "My  father  and  my 
grandfather  could  not  read.     I  can't  read.     We  have 


EDUCATION   IN  INDIA  263 

prospered  fairly  well.  Why  should  I  have  my  son 
taught?"  They  had  a  sort  of  suspicion  too  that,  as 
printing  and  books  were  introduced  by  the  English, 
especially  missionaries,  they  must  be  in  some  way 
connected  with  Christianity ;  that  their  sons  in  learning 
to  read  might  be  led  away  from  the  ancient  faith. 

It  was  not  until  within  the  past  twenty-five  years 
that  the  Indian  youth  manifested  much  desire  for 
education.  The  most  potent  factor  in  producing  this 
desire  was  the  opening  of  a  large  number  of  govern- 
ment and  railway  offices  to  qualified  Indian  men.  The 
Hindu,  like  other  men,  believes  in  a  thing  when  he 
sees  money  in  it,  and  when  he  saw  good  salaries  and 
respectable  employment  offered  him,  his  ambition  be- 
gan to  awaken.  But  an  education  was  required  to 
fit  him  for  these  positions,  and  he  began  to  call  for 
schools. 

The  missionaries  have  done  much  in  educating  the 
Indian  youth.  Not  only  Carey  and  Marshman  and 
Ward,  but  almost  all  missionaries,  have  turned  their, 
attention  to  this  line.  They  have  reduced  nearly  all 
the  vernaculars  to  written  languages ;  they  have  trans- 
lated the  Bible,  school  text-books  and  other  useful 
books;  they  have  provided  schools  for  their  converts 
and  also  for  non-Christians,  and  urged  the  youth  to 
attend  and  develop  their  minds  for  useful  service. 
To-day  a  very  large  share  of  the  schools  and  colleges 
of  India  are  supported  and  managed  by  missionary 
organizations.  They  are  doing  a  grand  work  also  in 
industrial  institutions  and  in  orphanages.  They  have 
established  training-schools  for  the  teaching  of  trades, 
as  weaving,  cabinet-making,  woodcarving,  shoemaking, 


264  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

lacemaking  and  like  trades.  The  Reid  Christian  Col- 
lege of  Lucknow  is  doing  a  grand  work  in  teaching 
stenography  and  typewriting,  and  thus  opening  up  a 
large  field  of  usefulness. 

Government  is  developing  a  thorough  system  of 
education  in  all  the  provinces  and  presidencies.  It  has 
five  universities  located  at  Bombay,  Calcutta,  Madras, 
Allahabad  and  Lahore.  These  five  universities  alone 
have  power  to  grant  degrees,  as  A.  B.,  A.  M.,  etc. 
Each  has  annual  examinations  in  several  centers  within 
its  own  territory  and  within  easy  access  to  all  the 
population.  Pupils  from  the  various  schools  are  sent 
to  the  nearest  examining  center  for  examination  for 
entrance  to  the  university,  or  for  A.  B.,  A.  M.,  M.  D., 
LL.B.,  and  other  degrees.  There  are  several  com- 
mendable points  in  this  system.  Everyone  in  any  part 
of  India  has  about  the  same  grade  of  examination  for 
the  degree  he  receives  as  every  other  one  in  any  other 
province.  This  same  plan  applies  to  European  as  well 
as  to  Indian  pupils. 

It  may  be  thought  difficult  for  a  student  to  pass 
the  whole  of  his  course  at  one  examination.  There 
are  some  mitigating  elements,  however.  For  example, 
the  candidate  for  A.  B.  may  take  an  examination  at 
the  end  of  his  second  year  of  college  and  receive  his 
F.  A.  (First  Arts)  ;  then,  at  the  final  examination, 
he  has  but  two  years'  work  upon  which  to  pass.  Then, 
also,  the  percentage  of  marks  that  will  pass  him  is  only 
about  thirty,  while  in  an  American  college  it  is  seventy- 
five  to  ninety  per  cent. 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA  265 

Government  has  primary  schools  in  most  of  the 
towns  and  large  villages.  These  are  partly  under  the 
control  of  government  and  partly  controlled  by  local 
committees  of  leading  citizens  of  the  community  in 
which  the  school  is  located.  The  support  of  these 
schools  comes  from  three  sources — government  funds, 
local  funds  and  fees  from  pupils.  The  local  com- 
mittee decides  how  much  each  pupil  shall  pay,  accord- 
ing to  the  ability  of  his  parents  or  guardians.  But 
these  fees  are  very  low,  in  some  cases  not  over  two 
cents  a  month. 

There  is,  also,  in  many  places,  a  sort  of  compulsory 
system.  The  local  committee  decides  what  pupils  shall 
be  compelled  to  attend  school,  or  whose  parents  or 
guardians  are  so  situated  that  they  do  not  need  the 
labor  of  their  boys  to  support  the  family.  Others  may 
go  if  they  choose. 

In  many  places  similar  schools  are  provided  for 
girls  also.  But  these  are  not  so  general.  Government 
offers  special  inducements  to  girls'  schools,  but  as 
yet  few  Indian  men  think  it  necessary  to  have  their 
girls  taught.  Many  are  so  benighted  still  as  to  think 
that  if  women  learn  to  read  and  write  it  unfits  them 
for  the  house  duties.  It  may  unfit  them  to  be  the 
slaves  of  their  husbands,  but  it  does  not  unfit  them 
to  be  companions  and  intelligent  mothers. 

Besides  the  primary  schools,  government  has,  in 

large  centers,   middle-schools,  high-schools  and  here 

and  there  a  college.     Light  fees  are  charged  in  these 

institutions  also,  as  well  as  in  the  primary  schools. 

In  each  province  and   presidency  there  is  an  in- 


266  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

spector-general  of  education,  sometimes  called  by  an- 
other name,  but  having  the  same  functions.  He  has 
general  charge  of  the  educational  interests  of  his 
province.  There  is  a  deputy  inspector  for  each  dis- 
trict or  county.  The  deputy  inspectors  travel  about 
their  districts,  examine  the  schools  at  least  once  a 
year,  and  report  to  their  superior  officers.  They  have 
the  immediate  oversight  of  the  teachers,  and  report 
any  delinquencies.  Besides  these  there  are  usually 
circle  inspectors,  who  grade  between  the  inspector- 
general  and  the  deputy  inspector.  Each  of  these  circle 
inspectors  has  a  group  of  districts  under  his  charge. 
He  has  the  oversight  of  the  deputy  inspectors  and  trav- 
els about  inspecting  the  schools  in  his  circle,  and  re- 
ports to  the  inspector-general.  The  inspector-general 
provides  a  curriculum  for  the  schools  of  his  province. 
As  previously  intimated,  there  are  many  private 
and  mission  schools.  These  may  be  independent,  if 
they  like,  but  usually  the  managers  place  them  under 
government  inspection  and  receive  from  government 
an  annual  "grant-in-aid."  The  managers  employ  the 
teachers,  furnish  the  building  and  apparatus  and  are 
responsible  for  the  institution.  They  follow  the  gov- 
ernment course  of  study  and  the  deputy  inspector 
examines  the  school  at  least  once  a  year,  promotes  to 
the  next  grade  the  pupils  that  pass,  and  recommends  to 
the  inspector-general  the  amount  of  grant-in-aid  to  be 
given,  which  is  based  on  the  daily  attendance  and  the 
number  of  passes.  The  grant-in-aid  is  never  a  very 
considerable  sum,  but  is  a  great  encouragement  to  pri- 


EDUCATION  IN  INDIA  267 

vate  institutions.  These  schools  may  teach  whatever 
else  they  wish,  but  the  government  course  must  be 
pursued  if  they  receive  the  grant-in-aid. 

Most  missions  have  orphanages  in  various  places. 
These  orphanages  have  become  much  more  numerous 
in  the  recent  famines.  Many  thousands  of  orphans 
are  being  educated,  and,  along  with  their  school-work, 
they  are  usually  taught  some  useful  trade.  Govern- 
ment also  has  industrial,  technical  and  professional 
schools.  Schools  of  medicine,  law,  engineering,  for- 
estry and  surveying  are  established  in  various  parts  of 
India. 

As  yet  only  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  youth 
avails  itself  of  the  higher  education.  The  primary 
schools  are  being  urged  upon  the  people.  Most  par- 
ents are  now  proud  of  their  boys  that  can  read  and 
write,  though  few  appreciate  the  value  of  such  knowl- 
edge. 

A  serious  problem  presents  itself  in  regard  to 
college  graduates.  The  college  is  a  new  institution. 
Graduates  are  a  new  class.  As  before  mentioned,  the 
primary  object  of  the  government  officers  in  estab- 
lishing schools  for  Indian  youth  was  fo  prepare  a  cer- 
tain number  for  government  service.  Now  the  supply 
is  greater  than  the  demand.  A  very  few  lines  of  em- 
ployment are  as  yet  open  for  these  college  graduates. 
Government  service,  railway  service,  teaching,  clerk- 
ships with  business  firms,  law  and  medicine  are  about 
the  only  objects  of  a  graduated  ambition,  unless  he  is 
a  Christian  and  looks  to  the  ministry.  The  legal  pro- 
fession is  greatly  overrun.  As  to  medicine,  its  prac- 
tice is  not  very  general  in  India.     The  vast  majority 


268  MOSAICS  PROM  INDIA. 

of  the  Indian  people  do  not  employ  doctors.  If  they 
are  ill,  they  either  endure  it  without  medicine  or  use 
some  domestic  remedy.  But  government  dispensaries 
that  are  now  distributed  over  the  country  are  acquaint- 
ing the  people  to  some  extent  with  English  medicines 
and  English  surgery,  and  they  are  beginning  to  prize 
them  much  more  and  the  calls  for  physicians  educated 
in  English  therapeutics  and  surgery  are  increasing,  but 
the  masses  of  the  people  are  too  poor  to  employ  a 
physician. 

On  account  of  this  poverty  the  legal  profession  has 
little  money  in  it.  Many  cases  are  carried  through 
for  a  fee  of  three  dollars  that  in  America  would  net 
one  hundred.  Even  these  cases  are  so  scarce  that 
the  average  lawyer  employs  an  agent  to  go  among 
the  people  and  "drum  up"  cases. 

When  a  government  clerkship  is  open  there  are  a 
dozen  applicants  who  have  been  waiting  some  years 
as  ummedwar  (hopefuls)  for  such  an  opening.  The 
same  is  true  in  regard  to  railway  positions  and  other 
employments. 

Few  Indian  college-graduates  have  a  thought  of 
developing  a  business  for  themselves.  In  America  an 
A.  B.  may  go  into  business  on  his  own  account.  He 
may  establish  a  dry-goods  store,  hardware  store,  a 
newspaper,  a  mining  plant,  a  dairy,  an  agency  or  what 
not.  But  the  Indian  retains  the  idea  that  these  forms 
of  employment  are  degrading,  meant  only  for  the 
lower  castes.  He  is  willing  to  work  hard  in  a  govern- 
ment office,  but  not  in  an  employment  that  looks  like 
menial  labor,  hence  there  are  many  A.  B.'s  idle.  But 
this  evil  will  adjust  itself  in  time.    Many  more  forms 


EDUCATION   IN  INDIA  269 

of  industry  that  require  educated  men  will  be  created 
in  India  as  the  years  go  by.  Railways,  telegraphs, 
electrical  appliances,  engineering,  English  stores  and 
the  like  have,  in  recent  years,  greatly  multiplied  the 
opportunities  for  the  employment  of  brains  in  India. 
Many  others  of  the  modern  improvements  now  com- 
mon in  the  Occident  are  being  introduced  into  the 
Orient  every  year.  These  will  furnish  new  lines  of 
employment. 

In  the  course  of  time,  too,  these  graduates  will 
open  up  business  for  themselves.  Occupations  that 
are  now  considered  below  their  dignity  will  be  taken 
up  and  pursued  intelligently  and  raised  to  respecta- 
bility. Thus,  in  time,  there  will  be  employment  for 
all  that  may  fit  themselves  by  higher  education  to  do 
something  in  this  life. 

It  is  different  with  the  Christian  graduates.  Be- 
sides their  share  in  the  government  offices  and  in  the 
professions,  they  are  greatly  in  demand  as  teachers  in 
the  various  mission-schools.  Consequently,  the  edu- 
cated Christian  of  good  character  is  seldom  out  of  em- 
ployment. They  are  also,  as  a  rule,  more  trustworthy 
than  non-Christians  and  are  preferred  in  the  offices. 

The  higher  education  is  in  English.  If  a  man 
wishes  an  A.  B.  he  must  know  English,  as  his  exam- 
inations for  that  degree  are  in  English.  The  reasons 
for  this  are  apparent.  There  is  almost  no  literature  in 
the  vernaculars.  What  there  is  consists  largely  of 
translations  of  recent  years  which  are  foreign  to  the 
language  itself.  The  original  productions  that  do 
exist  are  usually  of  a  low  grade  as  literature,  and  the 
moral  tone  is  low.    For  example,  in  Urdu,  the  "Bagh 


270  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

O  Bahar"  is  considered  the  finest  production.  Yet  it 
is  mostly  twaddle.  The  plan  of  the  story  shows  little 
or  no  genius.  Its  inspiration  is  derived  from  the 
coarsest  passions.  Gluttony  is  very  prominent.  Parts 
of  it  are  so  immoral  that  even  the  Munshis,  when 
teaching  the  English  people  the  language,  ask  them  to 
omit  a  number  of  pages.  Such  literature  is  not  fit  to 
be  placed  before  the  student. 

Again,  the  vernaculars  are  not  rich  enough  in 
vocabulary  and  forms  of  thought  to  be  used  in  higher 
education.  A  language  is  a  growth;  that  growth  is 
in  proportion  to  the  intellectual  growth  of  the  people 
using  it.  A  pastoral  people  will  develop  a  language 
rich  in  terms  pertaining  to  the  flocks  and  fields  and 
tents ;  but  they  may  have  no  words  to  express  thoughts 
pertaining  to  the  city.  They  may  have  no  words  to 
express  the  idea  of  a  paved  street,  telephone,  electric 
light,  elevator,  mayor,  high-school,  and  the  like,  be- 
cause these  pastoral  people  have  no  such  things  and 
have  never  made  words  to  express  them.  On  the 
same  principle  these  same  vernaculars  of  India  have 
no  words  to  properly  express  evolution,  chemical  affin- 
ity, dynamics,  telegraphy,  corpuscles,  perception  and 
similar  thoughts  so  common  in  modern  science.  But 
the  English  language  is  very  fertile  in  words  and 
phrases  that  will  clearly  represent  all  our  thoughts 
on  modern  science  and  philosophy.  Rather,  therefore, 
than  build  up  all  the  vernaculars  to  the  standard  of 
modern  thought,  it  is  much  better  to  use  the  already 
prepared  English  language  in  all  forms  of  higher 
education.     The  primary  schools  are  in  the  vernacu- 


EDUCATION   IN  INDIA  271 

lars  of  the  people,  but  above  the  middle  grade  govern- 
ment  has   wisely   decided  to   use   English. 

English  is  destined  to  become  the  language  of  the 
common  people  of  India  as  well  as  of  the  educated. 
The  people  are  anxious  to  learn  it.  As  the  rulers  of 
the  land  are  English,  the  people  think  that  they  are 
of  more  importance  themselves  when  they  can  use  the 
English  language,  and  this  is  true.  An  Indian,  as  a 
rule,  is  more  honored  by  his  own  people  when  he  is 
able  to  speak  English.  He  stands  a  better  chance  for 
employment,  not  only  in  government  service,  but  in 
the  service  of  Indian  merchants  and  business  men. 
The  knowledge  of  English  also  opens  to  the  Indian 
youth  all  the  treasures  of  knowledge  of  the  earth. 
Science,  philosophy,  art,  poetry,  inspiration  are  his. 
His  mind  necessarily  expands  and  becomes  better  fitted 
for  responsible  service. 

For  the  English  language  to  become  universal  in 
India  will  not  be  very  difficult.  The  Indian  acquires 
a  new  language  readily.  Often  a  common  cook  may 
be  found  who  speaks  fluently  four  or  five  languages, 
English  included.  The  desire  to  learn  English  is 
greatly  increasing.  Let  the  vernaculars  pass  away. 
They  have  little  in  them  that  need  be  preserved.  The 
Sanscrit  is  already  a  dead  language.  It  may  be  pre- 
served as  such,  just  as  classic  Greek  or  Hebrew  is  with 
us.  One  language  for  all  India  would  be  a  great 
blessing. 

The  people  of  India  are  very  distinct  one  from 
another.  They  will  never  become  one  nation  until 
they  have  a  common  language.  The  common  gov- 
ernment  (English)   does  a  great  deal  even  now  to 


272  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

make  their  interests  one.  Yet  they  remain  as  separate 
peoples.  In  the  United  States  of  America  there  are 
colonies  of  Russians,  of  Germans,  of  Bohemians,  who. 
retain  the  languages  of  their  mother-countries.  These 
never  become  Americanized  as  long  as  they  retain 
their  native  languages.  They  do  not  come  into  perfect 
sympathy  with  the  government  or  people  of  the  United 
States  in  general,  until  they  use  the  language  of  the 
United  States  as  their  daily  language. 

When  the  people  of  India  use  one  tongue  in  all 
parts  of  the  land,  and  have  one  government,  their 
interests  will  be  one  and  they  will  become  one  nation. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
GODS  AND  RELIGIONS  OF  THE  LAND. 

The  gods  and  goddesses  in  the  Hindu  Pantheon  are 
almost  innumerable.  There  are  said  to  be  thirty-three, 
crores,  or  three  hundred  and  thirty  millions  of  greater 
and  lesser  deities.  In  fact,  the  religion  of  the  Hindus 
has  degenerated  into  a  huge  system  of  demonology. 
The  woods,  the  fields,  the  trees  and  rivers  are  all 
inhabited  by  beneficent  or  malevolent  spirits.  Even 
animals  are  possessed  by  spiritual  beings,  good  or 
bad. 

This  great  host  of  gods  would  seem  to  give  wide 
range  of  choice  to  worshipers,  but  choice,  like  caste, 
occupation  and  many  other  things  in  India,  has  been 
decided  by  a  man's  forefathers,  centuries  before  he 
came  into  the  world.  If  his  ancestors  were  Saivites,  or 
worshipers  of  Siva,  he  will  be  so  likewise,  else  be 
accused  of  the  deadly  sin  of  changing  his  religion. 
The  same  is  true  of  followers  of  Vishnu.  Yet,  in  a 
way,  Brahminism  is  broad — that  is,  it  absorbs  into 
itself  many  beliefs  and  practices,  and  a  man  may  be  a 
good  Hindu  and  even  believe  in  the  Christ  of  the 
Bible,  provided  he  does  not  contradict  or  denounce 
anything  in  Hinduism.  He  must  believe  all  to  be 
true,  and  above  everything  else,  with  his  belief,  he 
must  keep  caste. 

273 


274  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

While  most  of  the  numerous  gods  are  worshiped  in 
all  parts  of  India,  yet  some  have  a  decided  pre-emi- 
nence in  certain  portions.  The  two  superior  gods 
are  undoubtedly  Siva  and  Vishnu.  The  great  Hindu 
triad  represented  in  a  number  of  cave  temples,  notably 
in  the  colossal  sculpture  in  the  Elephanta*  Caves,  near 
Bombay,  represents  Brahma,  the  creator,  in  the  center; 
Vishnu,  the  preserver,  on  the  right ;  Siva,  the  destroyer 
and  reconstructor,  on  the  left.  The  creator,  however, 
has  been  largely  lost  sight  of,  and  the  other  two  of  the 
triad  claim  the  homage  of  the  millions. 

Siva,  in  the  central  and  northwestern  parts  of 
India,  has  hosts  of  followers.  The  revolting  symbol 
of  Maha-deo,  as  Siva  is  called,  is  seen  everywhere — 
by  the  road  side,  in  front  of  temples,  and  even  in  the 
houses  of  his  worshipers.  This  symbol,  the  Ling,  or 
Linga,  is  thought  by  some  scholars  to  be  mystical  in 
meaning  and  to  hold  none  of  the  sensual  idea ;  but  to 
one  who  has  lived  in  India  for  a  long  time  and  become 
intimate  with  some  of  the  ruling  ideas,  the  worship  of 
the  Yoni  and  Linga  explains  much  of  the  impurity  of 
life  prevailing  in  the  land  of  Maha-deo. 

In  the  whole  valley  of  the  Ganges  this  worship 
prevails,  as  the  Ganges  itself  is  supposed  to  flow  from 
Siva's  body  as  excretory  matter.  The  Vishnuites,  or 
Vaishnumites,  as  they  are  called,  not  to  be  outdone, 
try  to  attribute  the  source  of  the  mighty  Ganges  to 
their  god,  and  say  it  flows  from  his  feet.  Many 
quite  as  incredible  and  ridiculous  stories  are  told  of 

♦The  Elephanta  cave  temple   was  excavated  twelve  cen- 
turies ago.    It  is  now  visited  by  thousands  of  tourists. 


GODS  AND  RELIGIONS  OF  THE  LAND  275 

these  and  other  gods  and  goddesses.  Vishnu  is  wor- 
shiped mostly  in  his  incarnated  forms  of  Krishna  and 
Rama,  but  he  himself  has  a  distinct  personality  as 
preserver  and  has  hosts  of  devotees  and  a  thousand 
names  and  epithets.  In  many  cases  their  temples 
stand  side  by  side,  as  at  Kanjivaram,  near  Madras. 
These  two  principal  gods  are  Brahminical  deities  and, 
according  to  most  scholars,  believed  to  be  derived  from 
the  Vedas,  although  some  attribute  to  them  a  pre- 
Aryan  or  non-Aryan  origin. 

Five  principal  divisions  of  Hinduism  are  usually 
given,  but  they  could  all  be  considered  under  the  two 
great  sects  of  Saivism  and  Vaishnavism.  The  five 
given  are  (1)  worshipers  of  Siva  (Saivas),  (2)  wor- 
shipers of  Vishnu  (Vaishnavas),  (3)  worshipers  of 
female  deities,  such  as  the  numerous  wives  of  Siva 
and  wives  of  other  gods  (Saktas),  (4)  worshipers  of 
Ganesha,  the  elephant-headed  god  of  luck  and  good 
fortune  (Gana-patyas),  (5)  sun- worshipers  (Sauras). 
A  sixth  is  sometimes  given — Pasupata  or  Kapalika, 
which  is  chiefly  found  in  South  India. 

The  contemplative  Hindu,  studying  the  forces  of 
nature,  noticed  creation,  preservation,  destruction  and 
then  reconstruction.  He  conceived  of  an  eternal 
essence,  or  the  "Absolute,"  manifesting  itself  in  these 
processes ;  thus  it  became  divided  into  many  personali- 
ties. The  sun,  showering  blessings  upon  the  earth, 
became  an  object  of  worship.  The  productive 
earth  shared  in  the  homage  and,  in  like  manner,  what- 
ever gave  benefit  was  deified;  so  that  the  cow,  the 
fruitful  womb,  the  running  streams,  a  man's  imple- 
ments in  agriculture  and  the  arts — all  in  turn  became 


276  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

cither  deities  or  manifestations  of  them.  In  this  way 
religion,  while  recognizing  a  first  cause,  in  practice 
became  pantheistic.  The  gods  were  endowed  with 
the  known  attributes  of  human  beings,  and,  being  gods, 
these  attributes  were  magnified.  In  turn  the  worship 
of  these  beings  emphasized  the  same  traits  in  the  wor- 
shipers. So,  in  his  search  after  God,  and  having  no 
revelation  of  real  purity,  or  having  departed  from  that 
of  his  ancestors,  the  Hindu  has  fled  from  himself  to 
a  man-made  god,  and,  copying  its  exaggerated  traits, 
has  grown  no  nearer  righteousness,  but  has  sunk  and 
is  sinking,  supported  only  by  borrowed  ideas  of  holi- 
ness taken  from  the  religions  founded  on  revelation. 
At  the  close  of  this  chapter  more  of  the  results  of  this 
system  on  individual  and  national  life  will  be  noticed. 

All  the  gods  are  not  worshiped  alike  in  all  parts 
of  India.  Each  one  holds  sway  in  certain  localities 
and  among  certain  classes  and  sects,  although  many 
people  worship  a  large  number.  The  whole  religion 
of  ninety  percent  of  the  people  of  India  is  one  of 
fear  only.  The  elevation  attained  by  a  nation  which 
worships  what  is  pure  and  holy  is  lacking ;  for,  though 
good  spirits  are  believed  to  exist,  yet  they  receive 
very  little  attention,  because,  if  good,  they  will  do  no 
harm,  therefore  they  need  not  be  worshiped,  while  the 
bad  must  be  propitiated  lest  they  wreak  vengeance 
upon  the  neglectful. 

Ganesha  and  Su-brahmanya  are  favorite  tutelary 
gods  and  they  are  asked  for  positive  blessings,  while 
Ayenar,  a  very  popular  god  in  South  India,  and  but 
little  known  elsewhere,  is  only  invoked  to  ward  off 


GODS  AND  RELIGIONS  OF  THE  LAND  277 

danger  or  disease.  He  is  supposed  to  hold  sway  over 
demons  and  fiends  who  lie  in  wait  to  devastate  fields 
and  blight  cattle.  Offerings  of  the  blood  of  goats, 
swine,  sheep,  cocks  and  other  animals  are  made  to 
him  and  also  eatables.  His  priests  are  very  poor  and 
are  said  to  be  of  the  lowest  caste.  This  latter  state- 
ment is  quite  probable,  considering  the  manifold  in- 
consistencies of  which  Hinduism  is  capable.  Ayenar 
and  his  two  wives  ride  on  horses  over  the  fields,  chas- 
ing away  demons  and  spirits.  This  god  is  credited 
with  a  horrible  origin,  as  the  son  of  Siva  and  Vishnu, 
when  Vishnu  took  the  form  of  a  beautiful  woman.  In 
Calcutta,  Kali,  the  goddess  who  delights  in  the  blood 
of  goats  and  buffaloes,  is  a  favorite  deity,  and  a  more 
loathsome  creature  than  she  is  represented  it  were 
difficult  to  imagine.  As  Durga,  this  same  goddess 
slew  a  demon  by  that  name,  and  the  festival  in  her 
honor  in  Bengal  is  greatly  honored.  In  another  form, 
Parwati,  she  is  the  popular  god  at  Poona,  where  she 
is  called  the  goddess  of  fortune.  At  Madura,  in  South 
India,  she  has  many  followers.  In  front  of  her  shrine 
there  living  parrots  and  cockatoos  are  hung  in  cages. 

Krishna  is  a  favorite  god  in  many  parts  of  India, 
but  his  followers  are  generally  very  immoral.  This 
is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  when  the  impure  life  attrib- 
uted to  the  god  is  remembered.  The  very  formula 
used  in  his  worship,  "Radha  Krishna/'  tells  this  story, 
for  Radha  was  the  wife  of  a  cowherd  and  Lakshmi 
the  lawful  wife  of  Krishna ;  also  his  silly  and  immoral 
antics  with  the  gopis,  or  milkmaids.  About  one-sixth 
of  the  natives  of  Bengal  are  his  followers.  Hanuman 
is  a  tutelary  god  in  the  Decca  and  in  Central  and 


278  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

Northern  India.  At  one  time  Ravana  carried  away 
Rama's  beautiful  wife,  Sita,  to  Ceylon,  from  whence 
she  was  rescued  by  Hanuman.  This  caused  his  deifi- 
cation. This  exploit  is  celebrated  in  the  Hindu  poem 
Ramayana.  He  was  probably  a  real  aboriginal  chief, 
resembling  an  ape,  and  for  his  prowess  in  battle  be- 
came celebrated.  The  tales  about  him  came  to  be 
legends  and  were  finally  embodied  in  the  poem  men- 
tioned. His  image  is  generally  very  rough  and 
smeared  with  red  paint  and  the  offerings  are  largely 
fine  oil.  As  some  claim  him  to  be  one  of  Siva's  numer- 
ous sons,  the  symbol  Linga  is  often  seen  in  his  tem- 
ples. These  symbols  are  constantly  met  with  and  there 
are  at  least  thirty  million  of  them  in  India.  In  Poona 
I  saw  a  large  image  of  this  god  under  a  banyan  tree. 
In  Benares  there  are  not  only  images  and  temples,  but 
real  monkeys  are  sheltered  and  worshiped  in  many 
temples.  These  poor,  disgusting,  impudent  creatures 
are  fed  by  devotees. 

To  anyone  believing  in  the  philosophical  beauty  of 
Hinduism,  one  visit  to  sacred  Benares  is  quite  suffi- 
cient to  disillusionize  his  mind.  And  so  of  Hinduism 
in  general,  for  while  mystical  meanings  may  be  attached 
by  Pundits  to  many  practices,  as  they  are  to  the  symbol 
of  Siva,  already  mentioned,  yet  in  its  practical  results 
among  a  people  "wholly  given  over  to  idolatry"  there 
is  only  corruption  and  decay.  The  few  beautiful  texts 
found  in  the  sacred  Veda  are  not  generally  known, 
and  even  in  the  Vedas  themselves  are  only  as  grains 
of  gold  dust  in  heaps  of  debris.  A  few,  an  almost 
infinitesimal  few,  by  austerities  and  prayers  are  really 


GODS  AND  RELIGIONS  OF  THE  LAND  279 

seeking  freedom  from  sin;  but  the  masses  of  both 
high  and  low  do  not  realize  the  disintegrating  and 
decaying  action  of  sin  on  the  soul.  Most  are  trying 
to  propitiate  the  evil  spirits  or  bribe  the  better  ones 
to  grant  temporal  blessings.  While  in  theory  pro- 
fessing to  believe  all  desire  is  sin,  even  the  desire  for 
food,  or  for  knowledge,  yet  in  practice  they  are  schem- 
ing for  the  least  vestige  of  gain.  With  nothing  before 
him  but  eight  million  or  more  of  re-births,  is  it  to 
be  wondered  at  that  the  Hindu  is  despondent  and  un- 
ambitious, yet  grasping?  What  but  moral  decay 
prompts  infant  marriages?  Are  they  not  born  of 
the  thought  that  profligacy  is  rampant  and  a  virgin 
wife  only  possible  when  secured  as  an  infant?  Caste, 
too,  is  the  legitimate  outcome  of  a  religion  which  is 
powerless  to  transform  the  life.  Having  no  restrain- 
ing power  like  that  of  a  spiritual  religion,  and  no 
teaching  as  to  the  brotherhood  of  man  and  the  father- 
hood of  God,  their  conduct  is  regulated  by  the  iron 
rule  of  caste,  attention  being  paid  to  minor  details 
while  the  weightier  matter  of  morals  has  been  neglect- 
ed. All  must  admit  that  caste,  in  some*  particulars, 
has  been  a  restraint;  but  the  restraint  relates  chiefly 
to  eating  food,  eating  with  other  castes,  marriage  and 
occupation,  while  real  morals  are  ignored.  Whatever 
obedience  a  man  pays  to  caste  rules,  or  whatever  alms- 
giving or  feeding  of  animals  he  may  perform,  he 
counts  as  so  much  accumulated  merit  and,  through 
and  through  the  Hindu  religion  or  religions  the  prin- 
ciple of  self-righteousness  is  apparent.  A  man  works 
out  his  own  salvation.  There  is  no  power  recognized 
that  can  cleanse  from  sin;  no  great,  inspiring  life  to 


28©  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

move  as  an  example  among  men.  Krishna  is  some- 
times likened  to  Christ,  but  his  immoral  life  can  have 
no  elevating  influence  whatever  on  his  devotees.  Even 
the  religious  devotees  who  devote  their  entire  time  to 
austerities  and  devotions  are  anything  but  the  sort  of 
men  to  help  any  people  to  righteousness  or  honor. 
These  men  are  called  fakirs,  or  sadhus,  and  are  taught 
by  religion  to  mortify  the  flesh.  This  is  done  by  dis- 
figuring their  bodies  an3  living  in  nakedness  and  filth, 
counting  this  uncleanness  of  body  cleanness  of  soul. 
Their  hair  remains  uncut  and  uncombed,  and  often 
their  bodies  are  smeared  with  ashes  of  cow-manure, 
while  streaks  of  paint  add  to  the  hideous  appearance. 

They  wander  from  place  to  place  and  are  greatly 
reverenced  by  the  people,  who  accede  to  their  demands 
for  gifts,  and  consider  them  a  class  of  holy  men.  Even 
proud  Brahmins  bow  down  to  these  grimy  creatures. 
Self-torture  of  every  description  is  inflicted  on  their 
bodies.  Some  hold  their  hands  or  feet  in  one  position 
until  fixed  there  and  impossible  to  be  moved.  Others 
fasten  their  eyes  upon  a  certain  object  for  days  or 
months.  A  still  more  silly  performance  is  to  move 
one  finger  up  and  down  continuously  during  waking 
hours.  Many  of  these  men  measure  the  ground  with 
their  bodies  until  they  reach  the  sacred  Benares ;  but, 
no  doubt,  when  arrived  there  they  join  the  evil  throng 
which  crowds  the  temples  and  shares  in  the  religious 
(  ?)  revels  sanctioned  there.  There  is  evil  in  every 
land,  but  it  is  not  connected  with  worship  in  any  but 
idolatrous  countries.  The  pride  of  the  Romans  did 
not  keep  the  evils  of  sensuality  even  from  the  temples 
of  the  vestal  (?)  virgins ;  nor  did  the  Egyptians  fail 


GODS  AND  RELIGIONS  OF  THE  LAND  281 

to  fall  into  religious  uncleanness  in  the  majestic  tem- 
ples of  Isis.  Exquisite  Greece,  in  the  midst  of  her 
refined,  alluring  and  ornate  gods  and  goddesses  and 
glorious  temples,  crowning  the  marvelous  Acropolis, 
fell  into  softness,  effeminacy  and  final  decay.  No 
amount  of  culture,  beauty  and  magnificence  can  pre- 
serve a  nation  or  an  individual  who  once  loses  the 
perfect  ideal,  the  really  divine,  the  vital  touch  of  God, 
Then  what  of  dark  India,  where  every  so-called  divin- 
ity is  more  or  less  a  villain  and  the  semblances  wor- 
shiped are  themselves  shapes  of  deformity,  and  where 
only  the  ancient  temples,  with  their  splendid  carvings, 
seem  to  furnish  any  adequate  background  for  the  old 
mysticism  of  the  Vedas  ?  There  the  imaginary  Mahat- 
mas,  inhabiting  the  snows  of  the  Himalayas,  and  the 
wonder-working  Sadhus,  all  vanish,  and  in  their  places 
one  sees  gross  materialism  of  a  sort  unknown  else- 
where. Where  will  you  find  the  religious  sanction  of 
greed,  bribery,  theft  and  licentiousness,  but  in  the  shad- 
ow of  the  temples  of  Siva  and  Vishnu  ?  Where,  as  in 
Brindaban,  will  you  find  six  thousand  temple-prosti- 
tutes ?  Where  a  little  building,  like  the  one  at  Pandra- 
pur,  which  my  husband  saw,  for  the  purpose  of  receiv- 
ing illegitimate  children,  who  are  the  result  of  the 
orgies  practiced  at  this  place  in  connection  with  the 
great  religious  festivals  held  there? 

At  the  great  melas,  or  festivals,  held  at  various 
places  besides  those  mentioned — Burman  on  the  Nar- 
budda,  at  Benares,  Puri,  Jagan-nath  and  elsewhere — 
there  are  many  objectionable  and  disgusting  practices 
and  ceremonies,  as  noticed  in  other  chapters.     The 


282  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

whole  tendency  is  toward  grossness  and  vulgarity. 
The  very  songs  about  the  gods  are  obscene.  The 
great  attraction  at  many  of  these  places  is  the  Jatra, 
or  religious  drama.  This,  too,  can  only  be  bad  in 
influence,  as  the  characters  represented  are  corrupt, 
with  nothing  in  the  drama  to  indicate  that  this  evil 
is  deprecated.  Besides  the  Jatra,  there  is  usually  a 
nautch,  or  dance,  by  the  poor  abandoned  women  who 
follow  this  profession. 

All  tends  to  corruption  and  materialism.  Only  out- 
ward rites,  the  invention  of  priestcraft,  remain,  with 
selfishness  and  superstition,  without  love,  purity  or 
holiness.  The  true  "Light  of  Asia"  is  the  Asiatic 
Nazarene,  who  will  come  to  his  own  and  give  them 
light. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

PILGRIMAGES  AND  HOLY  PLACES. 

All  over  India  you  hear  constantly  of  Tirth,  Hindu 
pilgrimage ;  or  Hajiya,  Mohammedan  pilgrimage ;  or  a 
pilgrimage  of  the  Parsees  to  the  burning  lakes,  some- 
where on  the  Caspian  Sea,  where  they  believe  the  god 
of  fire  has  his  home.  There  is  also  the  pilgrimage  of 
the  Buddhist  to  Buddha's  birthplace,  besides  almost 
innumerable  minor  shrines  and  sacred  rivers,  sacred 
trees,  as  the  old  stump  of  a  banyan  in  the  under- 
ground passage  of  the  fort  at  Allahabad ;  old  temples 
and  special  places  dedicated  to  special  gods,  as  Mutra, 
for  those  who  especially  revere  Krishna.  Tan j ore, 
Madura  and  Tinnevelly  receive  the  greatest  throngs 
of  Siva  worshipers,  and  so  on  through  the  endless  list 
of  gods  and  goddesses,  each  having  a  special  shrine, 
or  city,  to  which  long  and  fatiguing  pilgrimages  are 
made  by  devout  Hindus,  Parsees  or  Mohammedans. 
Southern  India  is  the  place  where  the  greatest  honor 
is  paid  to  Siva.  At  the  three  cities  mentioned,  Tan- 
jore,  Madura  and  Tinnevelly,  are  to  be  found  the 
finest  temples  in  point  of  grandeur  and  size  that  have 
been  erected  to  the  worship  of  this  god.  Travelers 
consider  the  one  at  Tanjore  as  the  first.  It  is  inside 
an  immense  quadrangle,  surrounded  by  a  double  row 
of  cells,  or  cloisters,  for  the  priests  and  "holy  men." 
Midway  on  two  sides  of  the  enclosure  are  arranged  one 

283 


284  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

hundred  and  eight  black  stone  Lingas  of  different 
sizes,  one  for  each  of  the  principal  names  of  Siva. 
Behind  these  are  grotesque  frescoes  on  the  wall.  This 
image,  the  Linga,  is  used  in  all  temples  devoted  to 
Siva  or  "Maha-deva,"  or  "Maha-deo" — Maha  mean- 
ing "great/ '  and  deva,  or  deo,  "god."  This  symbol 
represents  the  male  generative  organs,  or,  more  fre- 
quently, those  of  both  sexes.  Inside  the  quadrangle 
there  is  a  little  grove  of  palm  and  other  trees,  and  in 
the  principal  temple  an  innermost  sanctuary  of  the 
sacred  Linga.  Strangers  are  not  allowed  to  approach 
the  temples  in  South  India.  In  Benares,  however, 
where  such  throngs  of  tourists  resort,  you  may  go  very 
near  even  the  most  sacred  spot.  Outside  this  great 
temple  at  Tanjore  is  a  gigantic  statue  of  Siva's  bull. 
This  image  is  in  an  open  hall  of  fine  architecture. 

Besides  the  Linga  there  are  many  images  of  other 
gods  and  goddesses  in  side  temples,  besides  gods  and 
their  exploits  pictured  on  the  walls.  This  is  one  of 
the  one  thousand  and  eight  temples  of  Siva  to  be 
found  in  India,  besides  thousands  of  shrines  dedicated 
to  him.  To  all  these  pilgrims  come  to  worship,  as 
will  presently  be  described.  In  connection  with  the 
Benares  temples  Kali's  temples  are  equally  numerous. 
Kali  is  the  dark,  blood-thirsty  wife  of  Siva.  Durga 
is  another  manifestation  of  this  wife,  Parwati*  an- 
other, and  so  on.  At  Madura,  Minakshi,  the  wife  of 
Siva,  is  really  the  popular  deity  of  the  district,  accord- 
ing to  great  authorities  on  Indian  deities.    The  festi- 


*One  of  the  principal  temples  of  Parwati  is  at  Poona, 
(Chap.  IV.) 


STONE  HOG  AT  BARMON  ON  THE  NARBUDDA  RIVER. 
See   Chapt.    XVI. 


FIGURE  OF  THE   SACRED  BULL  IN  THE  TEMPLE  OF 
PARWATI,    POOXA. 


GODS  AND  RELIGIONS  OF  THE  LAND  285 

vals  held  in  her  honor  are  coarse  and  debasing,  and  are 
called  "oil-festivals."  The  idol  is  undressed,  its  head 
anointed  with  oil,  redressed  and  decorated  amid  an 
incessant  noise  of  shouting,  singing,  the  beating  of 
tom-toms  and  other  deafening  instruments.  Lights  are 
waved,  cowries  are  thrown,  while  the  procession,  head- 
ed by  the  god  Ganesha,  moves  along.  Whatever  the 
admirers  of  Hinduism  may  say  about  the  theoretic 
beauties  of  this  ancient  and  conglomerate  religion,  yet 
to  a  dweller  in  India  it  is  plain  that  grossness  and 
sensuality,  combined  with  much  inert  fatalism,  con- 
trol the  masses. 

The  temple  of  Ramesvara,*  situated  on  an  island 
nearly  connecting  India  with  Ceylon,  is  counted  as 
second  in  sanctity  to  Benares.  To  first  journey 
through  Benares,  go  through  more  than  a  hundred 
ceremonies,  pay  large  fees  to  the  Brahmins,  pour 
plenty  of  Ganges  water  on  the  Linga  in  the  temples 
there,  bathe  in  the  Ganges  and  then  take  a  jar  of 
water  to  Ramesvara,  toiling  on  foot,  through  sand 
and  dust,  for  twelve  hundred  miles,  will  insure  per- 
fection of  bliss  in  the  life  to  come  for  ages  and  ages. 

A  traveler  gives  a  touching  incident  which 
occurred  at  this  place  just  before  his  arrival  there: 
A  father  and  son  had,  after  months  of  suffering  and 
hard  travel,  succeeded  in  reaching  the  other  side  of 
the  channel  and  the  temple  was  actually  in  sight,  when 
the  father  died  suddenly  on  the  road,  leaving  the  little 

*For  information  regarding  the  great  temples  in  South 
India,  I  am  indebted  to  Sir  Monier  Williams  and  his  book 
"Brahminism  and  Hinduism." 


286  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

boy  destitute.  He  had,  however,  his  precious  jar  of 
water.  With  this  he  hurried  on  to  the  shrine.  Not 
knowing  how  precious  his  burden  was,  the  presiding 
priest  closed  the  door  in  the  child's  face,  because  the 
little  fellow  had  no  fee  to  give  him.  The  boy's  out- 
burst of  grief  was  terrible.  Ruled  by  the  priests  with 
a  rod  of  iron,  they  find  no  love,  no  care,  no  sympathy 
in  the  caste  and  the  ceremonies  they  so  blindly  wor- 
ship. 

The  Siva  temples  have  many  legends  connected 
with  trees.  In  some  places  the  mango  tree,  while  in 
other  places  the  vata  tree,  the  jambu  tree  and  others 
are  woven  into  the  stories  about  Siva.  Serpent-wor- 
ship is  also  connected  with  this  god.  At  Jagan-nath — 
the  great  temple  at  Puri,  in  Orissa — one  hundred  thou- 
sand annually  eat  the  sacred  food  which  is  distributed 
in  the  courts  of  the  temple,  for  here  caste  is  discard- 
ed for  the  time. 

The  rock-hewn  temples  at  Ellora,  or  Ellora  Caves, 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  are  considered  very 
holy  as  well  as  ancient. 

Leaving  Siva  temples  and  shrines  we  may  notice 
a  few  of  the  other  gods  and  goddesses  and  their 
shrines.  At  Gaya  there  is  a  large  Vishnu  temple 
where  sraddhas,  or  prayers  for  the  dead,  are  per- 
formed. These  sraddhas  may  be  made  on  the  banks 
of  pools,  or  streams — places  consecrated  by  the  foot- 
prints of  Vishnu,  as  this  temple  at  Gaya — or  they 
may  be  offered  in  cowhouses.  Pindas  (balls  of  rice) 
and  milk  are  placed  with  leaves  of  the  tulsi  plant  in 
earthenware  platters,  then  sprinkled  over  with  flowers 
and  kusa  grass.     The  hands  of  the  performers  are 


PILGRIMAGES  AND  HOLY  PLACES  287 

purified  by  holding  kusa  grass.  Water  is  then  poured 
into  the  palms  and  this  is  scattered  over  the  pindas 
and  the  ground;  threads  from  the  clothes  are  added 
to  typify  presenting  garments  to  the  dead.  Prayers 
and  texts  by  the  priests  accompany  all  this.  Finally, 
bowing  the  head  to  the  feet  of  the  Brahmin,  the  cere- 
mony concludes  with,  of  course,  a  fee  to  his  highness 
the  priest.  Thousands  flock  to  Trichinopoly,  the  won- 
derful sacred  city  inclosed  in  an  inner  and  outer,  with 
five  middle  walls.  This  contains  jeweled  images, 
many-storied  towers  rivaling  the  great  rock  of  Trichi- 
nopoly in  height,  gateways  and  innumerable  col- 
umns, and  has  cost  millions  of  rupees  and  required 
years  for  building.  Thousands  of  the  priests  make 
their  living  from  the  pilgrims.  In  the  inner  wall, 
leading  to  the  most  sacred  shrine,  is  a  door  called 
"Heaven's  Gate."  The  idol  is  carried  inside,  bedecked 
and  ready  to  receive  the  gifts  of  the  throngs.  Amid 
deafening  noises  the  crowd  passes  through  Heaven's 
Gate.  Do  you  see  them  ?  Some  go  from  a  vague  sense 
of  duty,  some  because  their  forefathers  have  done  the 
same  from  time  immemorial,  but  the  most,  doubtless, 
carrying  the  conviction  that  the  passage  of  this  earthly 
heaven's  gate,  opened  by  the  priests  at  their  bidding, 
will  be  a  sure  passport  to  Vishnu's  heaven  after  death. 
At  all  these  temples  there  are  troops  of  dancing- 
girls,  married  to  the  god,  but  really  slaves  to  the  licen- 
tious desires  of  the  Brahmins,  who  belong  to  the  tem- 
ples or  who  visit  there.  The  visions  of  the  most  en- 
thusiastic theosophist,  worshiper  of  Mahatmas,  or  ideal 
admirer  of  Hindu  mysticism,  would  fade  away  before 
the  awful  realities  witnessed  in  these  holy  places,  these 


288  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

temples,  shrines  and  ghats  on  the  sacred  rivers.  Thou- 
sands of  helpless  widows  are  gathered  at  Brindaban  in 
North  India,  and  girls  are  married  to  the  god  Khan- 
doka  in  Western  India  and  forced  to  live  profligate 
lives. 

A  description  of  one  day  in  Benares  is  quite  suf- 
ficient for  a  lover  of  the  pure  and  beautiful. 

BENARES,  THE   MECCA  OF  HINDUISM. 

Even  after  a  residence  of  more  than  seven  years  in 
India,  and  with  many  experiences  in  different  cities, 
Benares  is  a  revelation  of  the  possibilities  of  Hindu- 
ism. 

The  city  lies  on  the  banks  of  the  magnificent 
Ganges.  Facing  the  river  is  a  perfect  forest  of  tem- 
ples, towers,  bathing-ghats,  and  palaces.  The  vari- 
colored stone  of  which  they  are  built,  the  swarms  of 
people  in  their  many  tinted  garments,  the  booths,  the 
boats,  the  clear  reflection  of  all  in  the  beautiful  river, 
make  a  truly  gorgeous  scene  of  oriental  life. 

Titular  kings  and  queens  and  a  few  real  ones,  from 
all  parts  of  India,  come  here.  Each  one  erects  a  tem- 
ple to  his  or  her  favorite  god  or  goddess,  and  also  a 
palace,  or  mansion,  in  which  to  dwell  during  their  so- 
journ in  the  sacred  city.  Here,  too,  they  expect  to 
come  in  their  last  days,  to  die  on  the  banks  of  the  great 
Ganges.  Happy  the  man  who  dies  in  Benares,  having 
his  feet  washed  by  the  purifying  stream  as  his  soul 
leaves  his  body,  then  to  be  burned  on  its  banks  and 
have  his  ashes  carried  away  on  the  bosom  of  the  river. 

Many  of  the  palaces  are  mere  quadrangular  piles 
of  masonry,  but  many  are  really  fine  buildings  and 


PILGRIMAGES  AND  HOLY  PLACES  289 

enclose  beautiful  gardens.  Near  each  palace  is  the 
temple  built  by  the  same  devotee.  The  architecture  is 
curious,  ornate  and  varied.  Many  temples  are  orna- 
mented with  pure  gold.  An  elaborate,  pinnated  spire 
in  different  colorings  was  often  repeated.  Around  the 
base,  and  along  the  edge  of  the  roof,  numbers  of  small 
spires  start  out,  first  as  bas-relief  and  then  taper  off 
into  graceful,  separate  spires,  while  again  the  bas- 
relief  would  begin  behind  this  row,  and  in  turn  taper 
off,  and  so  on  until  the  spire  in  the  very  center  shoots 
up  its  graceful  form,  surrounded  by  symmetrical, 
alternate  rows  of  spires,  each  row  lower  than  the  one 
nearer  the  center,  down  to  the  roof  of  the  temple.  Two 
of  these  spires,  one  in  white  and  gold,  the  other  in 
dull-green  and  brick-red,  with  gold  lines,  were  very 
pleasing  to  the  eye. 

In  the  city  there  is  a  double  temple,  whose  exterior 
resembles  that  of  a  mosque.  The  domes  are  overlaid 
with  thin  plates  of  pure  gold.  Its  interior  is  filled  with 
almost  innumerable  idols — images  of  Gunpat,  Parwati, 
the  sacred  bull,  Siva,  and  the  indescribable  Ling,  and 
many  others.  The  whole  scene  was  loathsome  in  the 
extreme.  Swarms  of  people  were  going  in  and  out  of 
the  temple  and  up  and  down  the  narrow  alleys  leading 
to  the  temple.  Each  one  going  in  was  carrying  a  plate 
filled  with  flowers,  rice  and  little  cups  of  oil  and  water, 
which  form  the  offerings  to  the  idols.  Stalls  of  flower- 
sellers,  oil  and  grain  venders  block  the  roads  on  either 
side.  The  water,  oil  and  flowers  which  fell  on  the 
pavement  were  trampled  into  a  slimy  paste.  As  most 
of  the  flowers  were  marigolds,  the  odor  was  sickening. 
The  temples  in  the  crowded  city,  the  idols,  the  deluded, 


290  MOSAICS  OF  INDIA. 

worshiping  throngs,  and,  above  all,  the  scenes  along 
the  rivers  edge,  all  proclaim  superstition,  impurity, 
vileness — a  people  given  over  to  uncleanness  and  all 
abominations. 

We  spent  the  most  of  our  time  in  a  boat  going  up 
and  down  the  two  miles  of  river  front.  The  numerous 
ghats  are  long  flights  of  wide  stone  steps  reaching 
down  below  the  water's  edge.  All  day  long,  and  most 
of  the  night,  these  great  steps  are  literally  covered  with 
throngs  of  people,  all  eager  to  wash  away  their  sins 
by  a  plunge  into  Mother  Ganges.  As  one  after 
another  comes  down  into  the  river,  they  lift  their 
folded  or  outstretched  hands,  and,  looking  toward  the 
far  horizon,  they  breathe  a  prayer  to  the  god  of  the 
waters.  Some  throw  handfuls  of  water  over  their 
heads  as  they  repeat  their  mantras,  or  prayers.  The 
thought  comes  to  us  that  this  worship  and  these 
throngs  have  been  repeated  for  hundreds,  even  thou- 
sands of  years. 

"Oh!  those  generations  old, 
Over  whom  no  church-bell  tolled! 
Sighdess,  lifting  up  blind  eyes 
To  the  silence  of  the  skies ! 
For  the  innumerable  dead 
Is  my  soul  disquieted." 

One  of  the  ghats  is  called  the  burning-ghat.  Sit- 
ting in  the  boat  we  watched  three  or  four  bodies  pre- 
pared for  Hindu  cremation.  Whatever  the  rite  of 
cremation  may  be  elsewhere,  here  it  partakes  only  of 
the  repulsive.  The  bodies  are  brought  on  bamboo 
stretchers  and  are  placed  just  inside  the  edge  of  the 
stream  while  the  pyre  is  being  made  ready.    This  is 


PILGRIMAGES  AND  HOLY   PLACES  291 

one  of  the  places  where  suttee  used  to  be  performed 
before  English  law  put  a  stop  to  the  cruel  practice. 
One  corpse  was  that  of  a  man  of  about  forty  years  of 
age.  His  widow,  in  the  white  garments  of  widow- 
hood, came  down  to  the  water's  edge,  and,  dipping  up 
some  of  the  blessed  Ganges,  poured  it  over  the  face  of 
the  dead.  When  the  body  was  lifted  on  to  the  pyre 
she  helped  to  pile  wood  over  it  and  it  was  her  hand 
that  applied  the  torch.  When  the  sickening  crackling 
began,  and  at  a  gesture  from  a  relative — perhaps  a 
command,  for  we  were  not  near  enough  to  hear — she 
picked  up  a  stone,  and,  putting  her  hands  alternately 
on  the  ground,  she  broke  off  the  pretty  glass  bangles 
from  her  wrists  and  walked  up  the  bank,  a  desolate 
widow,  done  with  pleasures,  ornaments  and  even  re- 
spect, perhaps  to  endure  treatment  which  will  make 
her  wish  for  the  olden,  sharper,  but  speedier  death  by 
suttee. 

The  dust  of  the  burnings  is  strewn  upon  the  beau- 
tiful stream,  whose  origin,  according  to  Hindu  my- 
thology, is  too  revolting  to  mention.  In  the  burnings 
much  of  the  body  is  not  reduced  to  ashes,  owing  to  the 
very  primitive  arrangements.  Near  one  of  the  pyres 
we  saw  a  gaunt  pariah  dog  gnawing  away  on  the  re- 
mains of  a  previous  burning,  and,  on  looking  closely, 
we  saw  that  his  booty  was  a  human  skull.  This,  my 
first  view  of  a  burning-ghat,  I  hope  may  be  my  last. 

Many  strange  and  pathetic  scenes  were  transpiring 
on  all  sides.  The  fakirs,  or  holy  men,  were  to  be  seen 
everywhere — some  at  prayers,  some  in  meditation  and 
some  bathing.  A  Brahmin  priest  was  leading  a  young 
woman  into  the  water.    We  were  told  that  he  was 


292  MOSAICS  OF  INDIA 

giving  her  the  holy  bath.  He  dipped  her  up  and 
down,  mumbling  incantations  all  the  while.  She  placed 
the  edge  of  his  robe  on  her  head  at  intervals,  and  the 
sad  sight  suggested  temple-practices  such  as  Pundita 
Ramabai  tells  us  go  on  in  this  great  city  of  Hinduism 
and  elsewhere  in  India. 

While  we  were  still  in  the  boat,  an  old  ascetic  died. 
We  heard  that  he  was  to  be  immediately  lowered  into 
the  river  instead  of  being  burned.  This  is  a  privilege 
of  this  class  of  men  if  they  so  desire.  They  tied  large 
earthen  pots  to  his  arms  and  feet;  then,  rowing  out 
into  the  stream  a  little  way,  while  they  blew  an  un- 
earthly blast  on  a  conch-shell,  the  disciples  of  the  old 
devotee,  laughing  and  chatting  with  apparent  uncon- 
cern, tumbled  the  skeleton-like  form  overboard,  and, 
turning  the  chatties  so  that  they  filled  with  water,  the 
remains  were  soon  out  of  sight  beneath  the  flood. 

In  a  garden  near  the  monkey-temple  we  saw  an 
old  man — Shri  Swami  Bharkaranand  Sarasvati  by 
name — who  is  supposed  by  reason  of  his  austerities  to 
have  attained  to  the  state  of  deity.  As  we  entered 
the  garden  in  the  chill  of  the  early  January  morning 
we  perceived  the  thin  old  man,  on  an  upper  veranda, 
in  a  state  of  nudity.  He  hastily  donned  a  half  yard  of 
clothing — his  robe  of  state,  as  it  were,  for  he  only  puts 
it  on  for  the  reception  of  visitors — and  came  down 
the  rose-bordered  walk  to  meet  us.  To  our  surprise 
he  took  our  hands  in  a  friendly  grasp.  Then  he  pre- 
sented us  with  a  little  book  containing  a  short  sketch 
of  his  life  and  the  names  of  a  long  list  of  noted  and 
unnoted  foreign  visitors  who  have  come  to  see  him. 


PILGRIMAGES  AND  HOLY  PLACES  293 

He  inquired  all  about  us — our  work,  residence,  and  so 
on ;  then,  bidding  us  to  be  sure  to  see  his  own  marble 
image  in  a  shrine  on  the  other  side  of  the  garden,  he 
smiled,  salaamed  and  departed.  He  did  not  ask  us  for 
bakshish,  and  for  that  reason,  if  no  other,  we  shall 
never  forget  Shri  Swami,  the  holy  man  of  Benares. 
We  saw  the  life-size  statue,  done  most  exquisitely  in 
pure  white,  glossy  marble,  with  the  eyes  painted  to 
exactly  simulate  life.  People  from  far  and  near  come 
to  bow  down  and  worship  this  saint's  image. 

We  have  seen  Benares!  To  some  extent  we  can 
comprehend  the  first  clause  in  Isa.  57:5,  and  we  can 
realize  the  necessity  for  some  of  the  awful  punish- 
ments meted  out  to  idolaters  in  Bible  times.  We  can 
give  but  a  glimpse  of  Hinduism,  with  its  multitudinous 
gods  and  its  evil  effects  on  mind,  heart  and  body  of 
man.  The  worst  we  see  we  dare  not  write,  and  we 
can  never  know  the  worst  as  it  really  exists.  But  in 
spite  of  all  this  dark  picture,  India  is  rising  from  the 
slough  of  superstition,  for  her  light  has  come.  Thou- 
sands of  her  idols  have  been  crushed,  and  even  into 
dark  Benares  the  beneficent  rays  are  piercing.  Some 
day,  not  very  distant,  the  ashes  of  the  idols  in  this  city 
shall  strew  the  beauteous  river,  her  inhabitants  shall 
drink  of  the  fountain  of  life  and  bathe,  for  cleansing, 
in  the  river  of  the  water  of  life  which  proceedeth  out 
of  the  throne  of  God  and  the  Lamb. 

There  are  many  sacred  spots  on  the  banks  of  the 
rivers  Narbudda  and  Jumna,  besides  Benares  and 
other  places  on  the  Ganges,  and  even  on  smaller  rivers, 
while  sacred  tanks  are  common.     At  Pushkar  there  is 


294  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

a  tank  where  sins  are  supposed  to  be  cleansed  away. 
At  Allahabad  there  is  held  a  great  mela,  or  religious 
festival,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna. 
Here  thousands  of  pilgrims  resort  every  year.  On 
the  Narbudda,  at  Burman,  a  similar  mela  is  held.  This 
one  is  described  in  the  chapter  on  "Up-country 
Scenes." 

Another  notable  gathering  is  at  Kumbaconam  in 
South  India,  where,  in  a  tank,  "Mother  Ganges"  is 
supposed  to  appear  from  a  subterranean  passage  once 
in  twelve  years.  Several  hundred  thousand  people 
congregate  at  this  place  at  the  time  when  the  sacred 
waters  appear.  The  priest  stands  in  an  elevated 
structure.  The  teeming  thousands  stand  in  the  water, 
with  hands  outstretched  or  uplifted  in  prayer,  waiting 
the  signal  of  the  priest  to  indicate  that  the  Ganges  has 
come.  Then,  with  chants  and  prayers,  the  multitude 
plunges  into  the  efficacious  waters. 

Could  there  be  a  sadder  sight?  Yes,  a  sadder  one 
is  the  throng  of  returning,  impoverished  pilgrims — 
nothing  wiser,  nothing  better,  much  poorer,  but  carry- 
ing away,  as  they  will  tell  you,  no  joy,  no  peace,  no 
sense  of  pardon.  The  great  pilgrimage  is  over  and  no 
comfort  has  come  to  the  soul,  no  new  inspiration  into 
the  life.  They  have  asked  for  bread,  but  a  stone  has 
been  given  them  and  they  are  starving  still.  They 
have  looked  for  cleansing,  but  no  sin  has  left  them. 
They  have  looked  for  power,  but  none  has  come. 
They  have  bowed  before  hideous  images,  have  recited 
texts  and  prayers,  performed  vigils  and  listened  to 
stories  of  the  gods — all  in  vain !     With  corrupt  imag- 


PILGRIMAGES  AND  HOLY  PLACES  295 

inations  and  perverted  consciences,  with  foot-sore  and 
aching  bodies,  they  return  as  they  came — unhelped. 

Pilgrimages  and  holy  places  are  not  sufficiently 
noticed  without  a  reference  to  the  religious  mendi- 
cants, the  "holy  men,"  or  fakirs  of  India.  Some  ad- 
mirers of  Brahminism  describe  these  men  as  ascetics 
who  have  renounced  the  world,  the  flesh  and  the  devil 
and  who  give  themselves  up  to  the  contemplation  of 
God  and  spiritual  matters.  You  have  only  to  see  these 
men  to  be  satisfied  that  theirs  is  a  kind  of  "holiness" 
that  would  not  be  tolerated  in  Christian  lands.  They 
travel  from  place  to  place,  sometimes  in  bands  of  fifty 
or  more,  but  more  often  singly.  They  beg  or  demand 
their  living  from  the  people,  before  whom  they  pose  as 
devout  men.  They  go  nearly  or  quite  naked,  dis- 
figuring their  bodies  with  paint  or  ashes,  and  refrain 
from  bathing,  until,  in  that  hot  climate,  their  stench 
might  announce  their  presence  in  the  dark.  Their 
hair  is  never  cut,  washed  or  combed,  but  is  woven  in  a 
filthy  basket-like  mat  about  their  heads,  or  hangs  in 
stringy  masses  about  their  shoulders.  Nearly  all 
carry  the  dried  outside  cocoanut  shell  as  a  receptacle 
for  gifts  and  alms.  Their  whole  appearance  is  revolt- 
ing and  their  minds  and  morals  are  as  unclean  as  their 
bodies.  These  are  the  teachers  in  Hinduism  and  the 
same  class  abounds  among  Mohammedans. 

Poor  India! — seventy-three  per  cent  of  its  people 
following  after  idols  and  are  led  by  ignorant  priests 
and  disgusting  sadhus,  and  the  remaining  twenty-three 
per  cent  submit  to  the  sensual  and  treacherous  teach- 
ings of  the  "false  prophet"  and  his  devotees,  the 
fakirs!       No  living  fountain  of  life  from  which  to 


;296  MOSAICS  FROM  INDIA. 

[quench  her  thirst;  only  the  murky  streams  from  the 
•  Vedas  and  Koran.  When  shall  she  be  led  into  the 
beams  from  the  Sun  of  Righteousness?  Some  day, 
neither  at  Benares  nor  at  Mecca,  but  at  a  spiritual 
shrine  of  a  spiritual  God,  shall  all  of  India's  wealth 
of  devotion  and  self-sacrifice  be  poured.  Old  temples 
are  crumbling,  ancient  faiths  and  superstitions  fading 
away,  and  idols  are  being  destroyed.  Fairer  than  the 
dream-like  Taj  Mahal  shall  India's  beauty  shine  forth, 
for  in  that  day  ashes  and  corruption  shall  give  place 
to  righteousness,  purity  and  peace. 

Dark  India !  stretching  out  helpless  hands  to  those 
more  favored. 

Christless,  lifting  up  blind  eyes 
To  the  silence  of  the  skies ! 
Still  thy  love,  oh!  Christ  arisen. 
Yearns  to  save  these  souls  in  prison 
Through  all  depths  of  sin  and  loss 
Drops  the  plummet  of  thy  cross ! 
Never  yet  abyss  was  found 
Deeper  than  that  cross  can  sound. 


INDEX. 


Ablutions,  126. 
Age  of  consent,  149. 

Memorial  concerning,  150. 
Agra,  216. 
Akbar,  209. 

Iron  pillar  of,  216. 
American  grain,  176. 
Animals,  116. 

Cruelty  to,  250. 

Hospital  for,  248. 

Sacred  Bull,  284. 

Stone  Hog,  255,  284. 
Apollo  Bunder,  13. 
Aryans,  225. 

Invasion  of,  27. 
Asoka,  208. 

Baroda,  219. 
Bathings,  126. 
Benares,  67,  293. 
Benevolence,  48. 
Betel  leaves,  127. 
Bombay,  13. 
Brahma,  274. 
Brahmin,  48,  63,  71. 

Claims  of,  238. 

Punishments  of,  238. 
Buffalo,  16. 
Bull,  sacred,  284. 
Bungalow,  65. 
Burman,  122. 
Burning  ghats,  24. 

Carey,  Wm.,  262. 
Caste,  36,  48,  222. 

Defenders  of,  232. 

Evils  of,  231,  234. 

Low  Caste,  44,  159. 

Ostracism  from,  233. 

Origin  of,  224. 

Peculiarities  of,  243. 

Sub-divisions  of,  226. 
Charpoy,  162. 
Cholera,  171. 
Christians,  kinds  of,  45. 

Lapses,  55. 


Chundra  Leela,  50,  54. 
Civil   Service,  35. 
Cleanliness,  133. 
Climate,  Varieties  of,  37, 
Collector,  33. 
Colleges — « 

Allahabad,  264. 

Bombay,  264. 

Calcutta,  264. 

Elphinstone,  13. 

Lahore,  264. 

Madras,  264. 
Congress,  The  Social,  150. 
Cook  house,  114. 
Coolie,  14. 

Women,  165. 
Cremation,  290. 

Darjeeling,  195. 

Dead,  Disposition  of — 

(1)  Parsee  Method,  21. 

(2)  Hindu  Method,  24,  290. 
Delhi,  208. 

Diwan  i  Khass,  210. 
Doctors,  18,  34. 

Mrs.  Stephens,  77,  155. 

Miss  Clara  Swain,  151. 

Miss  Bielby,  151. 

Mrs.  Monelle  Mansell,  150. 
Dufferin,  Countess  of,  151. 
Durga,  284. 

East  India  Company,  29. 
Eating,  Manner  of,  65. 
Education — 

Founding  of,  262. 

Government,  264. 

Of  Women,  162. 

Girls'  schools,  269. 

Higher,  269. 

Missionaries  in,  263. 
Ekka,  15. 

English,  The  Rule  of,  28,  30. 
Eurasians,  27. 


INDEX. 


Fairs,  122,  281. 
Fakirs,  125,  280,  295. 
Famine,  57,  167. 

Relief  of,  168,  172. 

In  Zananas,  175. 
Fire  Worship,  21. 
Fruit,  113. 

Ganges,  291. 
Gods,  66. 

Siva,  274. 

Vishnu,  274. 

Kali,  277. 

Krishna,  277. 

Offerings  to,  289. 

Symbols,  of,  278. 
Gonds,  201. 
Government,  26. 

Benefits  of,  41. 

Difficulties  of,  36,  38. 

Errors  of,  40. 

Natives  in,  35. 
Governor  General,  32. 
Governors,  32. 

Hajiya,  283. 

Hanuman,  278. 

Hardwicke       Christian      Boys' 

School,  57. 
Hill  Stations,  195. 
Hinduism,  Divisions  of,  27$. 
Hook  swinging,  40. 
Humayan,  202. 
Hyderabad,  31. 

Idols,  Care  of,  70. 

Industries,  58. 

Insects,  115. 

Iron  Bracelet,  146. 

Iron  Pillar  of  Asoka,  216. 

Jackals,  116. 
Jains,  248. 
Jajannath,  286. 
Jamna  Musjid,  212. 
Jeypur,  221. 

Kali,  277. 

Karens,  46. 

Karmarkar,     Vishnu     Bhaskar, 

52. 
Koran,  93. 
Krishna,  277. 
Kutub  Minar,  209. 

Languages,  Diversity  of,  37. 
Lawyers,  40. 
Lucknow,  218. 


Madura,  283. 
Mahableshwar,  195. 
Mahatmas,  89. 
Manu,  Laws  of,  139. 
Marath'i,  14,  15,  63,  64. 
Market,  Crawford,  16. 
Marriage — 

Age  of  Consent,  149. 

Child,  148. 

High  Caste,  or  Brahminical, 
186. 

Mixed,  147. 
Mathas,  89. 
Mela,  122,  281. 
Mem  Sahib,  134. 
Missionaries,  Social  life  of,  109. 

Children  of ,  111,  112. 

In  Education,  263. 

Women  Missionaries,  161. 
Missions — 

Societies,  43- 

Schools,  170. 
Mofussil,  108. 
Moguls,  28. 
Mohammedon,  26. 

Houses  of,  130. 
Monasteries,  89. 
Mueller,  Max,  224. 
Muir,  Dr.,  224. 
Mukti,  84. 
Mussoorie,  195. 
Mutiny,  30,  219. 
Mysore,  221. 

Naini  Tal,  155. 
Narsinghpur,  no,  57. 
Native  States,  31. 
Nautch,  282. 
Niir  Jahan,  209. 

Ootacamund,  195,  199. 
Opium,  41. 
Orphanages,  57. 

Pachmarhi,  195. 
Pan,  131. 
Parsee,  13,  18. 
Peacock  Throne,  211. 
People :  Nationalities,  36. 
Persecution,  47. 
Peshwa,  63. 
Pilgrimages,  283. 
Pilgrims,  122. 
Plague,  14,  171. 


INDEX. 


Polyandry,  204. 
Polygamy,  154. 
Poona,  63. 

Powar,    Ram    Chandra   Babaji, 
49. 

Sundarabai,  141. 
Presidencies,  32. 
Pugri,  13,  63. 
Punkahs,  in,  112. 
Purdah,  17,  64,  69,  92,  97,  129. 

Reason  for,  139. 

Railway:  Victoria  Terminus,  13. 

Rajputs,  208. 

Ramabai,  Pandita,  20,  46,  75. 

Acceptance  of  Christ,  82. 

Her  father,  85. 

Ramabai  Circles,  87. 
Reformers,  74. 

Ram  Mohun  Roy,  74. 
Religions,  Varieties  of,  27,  36. 

Ceremonies  of,  69. 

Fire  Worship,  21. 
Rivers,  Sacred.  Narbudda,  122. 
Rowe,  Phoebe,  55,  160. 
Runabai,  97- 
Ryder,  Dr.  Emma,  16. 

Sabbath,  Observance  of,  46. 
Sacred  Places,  88. 

Burman,  122. 
Sacrifices  of  Todas,  205. 
Sadhus,  280. 
Schools — 

Government  curriculum,  61. 

Girls,  265. 

First  girls'  school,  65. 

Industrial,  58,  60. 

Mission  schools,  170. 

Ramabai's,  20,  74. 
Self-torture,  280. 
Servants,  114. 
Sharada  Sadan,  80. 
Shri  Swam'i,  293. 
Simla,  195. 
Siva,  274. 

Social  Congress,  150. 
Sooboo  Nagam  Ammal,  50. 
Sorosis  Club,  16. 
Stidra,  48,  225. 

Why  created,  239. 

Punishment  of,  239. 
Superstition,  140. 
Suttee,  40,  68,  74. 
Sweepers,  164. 


Tahsildar,  33. 
Taj  Mahal,  210. 
Temples,  Parwati,  67, 

Tanjore,  283. 

Madura,  283. 

Tinnevelly,  283. 

Ellora     rock-hewn     temples, 
286. 
Theosophists,  241. 
Tirth,  283. 
Todas,  202. 

Sacrifices  of,  205. 
Tonga,  161. 

Towers  of  Silence,  21. 
Trees,  117. 
Trichinopoly,  287. 
Tulsi  plant,  130. 

Uncleanliness,  133,  247. 

Vegetation,  117. 
Vehicles,  15. 
Viceroy,  32. 
Victoria  Terminus,  13. 
Vishnu,  274. 

Weddings,  15,  65. 

A  country,  180. 

Brahminical,  186. 

Mohammedan,  191. 

Planting  post,  182. 

Procession,  94. 
Wells,  Pollution  of,  53. 
Widows,  Burning  of,  40. 

Celibacy,  76. 

Description  of,  75. 

Home  for,  80. 

Number  of,  73. 

Rescue  of,  80. 

Story  of  one,  10 1. 

Story  of  Runabai,  73. 

Treatment  of  widows,  77. 
Williams,  Sir  Monier,  224. 
Women,  Education,  162. 

Lower  castes,  159. 

Marriage,  156,  157. 

Medical  aid  for,  152. 

Social  position,  156. 

Treatment  of,  155. 

Zahur  ul  Haqq,  49. 
Zanana,  129,  134. 

Access  to,  142. 

Famine  in,  175. 

Life  in,  136. 

Work  in,  140,  160. 


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